Review Article
Received: 2023-02-22 | Revised:2023-07-05 | Accepted: 2023-07-17 | Published: 2023-08-11
Pages: 01-19
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58985/jeopc.2024.v02i01.32
Abstract
Plants are an important source of many products and play a significant role in the human lifestyle all over the world. Plants produce secondary metabolites in which essential oil is one of the important chemical constituents. It has a unique aromatic smell and is used in different industries for various biological activities. In Ayurveda, essential oil is used in aromatherapy which is an ancient therapeutic knowledge or practice for healing the health of humankind. Thus, this paper focuses on all important aspects such as essential oils and their applications, taxonomic details of essential oil-bearing plant species, IUCN status, chemical composition, and therapeutic significance.
Keywords
Essential oil, aromatic plants, IUCN, Ayurveda, aromatherapy
1.
Introduction
Plants are an important source of many
products and play a significant role in the human lifestyle all over the world. They produce two
types of metabolites, i.e., primary and secondary metabolites. Primary
metabolites include amino acids, nucleic acids, organic acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, lipids, and hormones which are quite
significant for plant metabolism and their existence. Whereas secondary metabolites are
organic compounds including
terpenes, phenols, alkaloids, sulfur-containing compounds, and essential oils [1-3].
Essential oil is a
secondary metabolite substance made up of volatile compounds responsible for its
special flavor and odour. The aromatic oil compounds are found in cells, secretory
cavities, or glandular hairs of various parts of the plant-like root, stem, bark, leaves, bud,
flowers, fruit, and seeds. The unique aroma makes the plant different
from others which is why some plants can be identified easily by their
fragrance such as basil, rose, jasmine, lavender, sandal, mint, peppermint, rosemary,
citrus, camphor, cardamom, clove and many other plants. The organic compound
of essential oils possesses anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, anti-hypertensive, anti-inflammatory, anti-biotic,
antidepressant, antiseptic, antispasmodic properties and also has good
psychogenic effects such as relieving stress and treating depression and insomnia [1, 2, 4].
Historical evidences reveal that aromatic oil has been used for various purposes such as medicinal, magical and religious ceremonies around the world for centuries. It is believed that essential oils and scented ointments were used between 3000 and 2000 BC, in Indian and Chinese traditional medicinal systems which refer to many essential oil-producing aromatic plants and their healing effects. During the same period, ancient Egypt used essential oil & ointment for physical and physiological benefits, cosmetics, culinary and spiritual purposes. Greek history also documented the use of thyme, saffron, marjoram, peppermint and cumin in their healing systems. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the active component of essential oils was largely documented by many researchers and chemists who played an important role in creating awareness about the aromatic natural compound, their quality, and their effect on human health [5, 6, 23].
2.
Results
and discussion
2.1 Essential oils
Essential oils
refer to natural, aromatic, volatile plant oils which are secondary metabolite
products of plants that include terpenes, phenolic compounds, alkaloids and
sulfur-containing
compounds. These compounds
are responsible for the unique odour, flavor and biological activities of the
plant parts such as roots (Angelica), stem (Mentha, geranium), bark (Sassafras), wood (Sandalwood, rosewood), leaves (Basil, menthe, oregano), flower (Jasmine, rose, lily), fruit (Vanilla), peel (Bergamot), seed (Basil, coffee beans, nigella, almond) and berries (Juniper, pimento). These oil-containing
compounds are found in special cells, oil-sac, and oil-secretory glands
of the plant. These compounds
are found in limited plant species which can be identified by their aroma. These aromatic
plants belong to several families, but are abundant in the families like Apiaceae,
Asteraceae, Geraniaceae, Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Leguminosae, Poaceae, Rutaceae, and
Zingiberaceae. These oils are generally
obtained by hydro or steam distillation extraction method. Due to the
presence of various amazing medicinal properties, several people prefer
essential oils to other prescribed medicines. Essential oil exhibits
antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, antineuralgic,
antivenomous, antirheumatic,
antispasmodic, antitoxic, sedative, nervine, digestive, analgesic,
carminative, decongestive, expectorant, deodorant, restorative, circulatory,
diuretic, vulnerary,
insecticidal properties. They also assist
in reducing inflammation,
stress, anxiety, depression, pain, nausea, and headache and help in boosting
mood, improving digestion and sleep, as well as eliminating bacteria. Therefore, it is
widely used in food flavors & preservatives, cosmetics, shampoo, hair oil,
body oils, soap, lotions, insect repellent, toothpaste, laundry detergents and
other industrial products [1-2, 4-5, 24-25]. A well-known therapy, ‘aromatherapy’, is famous for its
use for physical and psychological well-being through inhalation, which shows
the wide use and healing potential of essential oils [7-9, 21]. People of many countries depend on
these plants as the source of primary medicines and also for their pharmaceutical
and other industrial applications in the countries. There is a high
demand for these plants as their oil is used around the world for several
purposes. Consequently, high
demand on a global scale puts these plants at risk of extinction. International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) considered these
plants as threatened species which listed in ‘Red data book’ under various
categories such as least concern (LC), data deficient (DD), vulnerable (VU), endangered (EN) and critically
endangered (CE). There are many plants
popular for their specific
aromatic oil or essential oil mentioned in Table.1 with their IUCN
status, characteristics, chemical compositions and various pharmacological
activities [9-11, 13].
Table 1. Essential oils bearing plants with
characteristics, composition and pharmacological activities
|
S. No. |
Essential oil (Botanical Name) |
Common Name |
Parts |
Characteristics |
Chemical Composition |
Pharmacological activity |
References |
|
1. |
Ambrette
seed oil (Abelmoschus
moschatus Medik.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Musk Mallow, Ornamental Okra |
Seeds |
Colour: Pale yellow Odor: A warm, sweety, musky aroma |
Ambrettolide, ambrettolic acid,
palmitic acid and farneso |
Antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, nervine, stimulant, stomachic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
2. |
Amyris
essential oil (Amyris
balsamifera L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Amyris, West Indian Sandalwood |
Wood & Branches |
Colour: Viscous pale yellow liquid Odor: Faintly woody aroma |
Caryophyllene, cadinene and cadinol |
Antiseptic, balsamic, sedative |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
3. |
Angelica
root oil (Angelica
archangelica L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Wild Celery, Masterwort, Angel’s Herb |
Roots |
Colour: Pale yellow to orange-brown clear liquid Odor: Amber odor |
Phellandrene, pinene, limonene, linalol and
borneol; osthol, angelicin, bergapten and imperatorin |
Antispasmodic, carminative,
depurative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, nervine,
stimulant |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
3. |
Aniseed oil (Pimpinella
anisum L.)
|
Aniseed |
Seeds |
Colour: Colourless to pale yellow liquid Odor: Warm, spicy-sweet characteristic scent |
Trans-anethole |
Antiseptic, antispasmodic,
carminative, diuretic, expectorant, galactagogue, stimulant |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
4. |
Armoise oil (Artemisia
vulgaris L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Wormwood, Mugwort |
Leaves and twigs |
Colour: Pale yellow & Odor: Camphoraceous and sweet scent |
Thujone, camphor, cineol, pinenes, dihydromatricaria ester |
Anthelmintic, antirheumatic
antispasmodic, carminative, choleretic, nervine, stimulant |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
5. |
Basil oil (Ocimum
basilicum L.)
|
Common Basil, Sweet Basil |
Leaves |
Colour: Yellow or pale green Odor: Sweet-herbaceous odor with a camphoraceous tinge |
methyl chavicol, linalol, cineol,
camphor, eugenol, limonene, citronellol |
Antidepressant, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, carminative, cephalic, digestive |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
6. |
Betel
leaf oil (Piper betle L.)
|
Betel |
Leaves |
Colour: Clear yellow to dark brown liquid Odor: Creosote-like aroma |
Betel phenol (chavibetol), chaviol and cadinene |
Stimulating, carminative, aromatic,
antiseptic, warming and aphrodisiac |
[12, 14] |
|
7. |
Birch tar
oil (Betula
alba L.)
|
Beithe, Bereza, Birch |
Barks |
Colour: Dark brown to orange liquid Odor: Spicy, warm aroma |
Cadinene, salicylic acid, methyl
salicylate, betulene and betulenol |
Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, cholagogue,
diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, tonic |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
8. |
Bitter orange oil (Citrus ×
aurantium L.) |
Seville orange, bitter orange |
Peel |
Colour: Pale yellow to yellow clear liquid Odor: Fruity, sweet, citrusy fragrance |
Limonene, camphene, myrcene, pinene,
cymene, ocimene |
Antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, deodorant, digestive,
fungicidal, stimulant |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
9. |
Black seed (Nigella
sativa L.)
|
Kalonji |
Seeds |
Colour: Deep Amber/Dark color Odor: --- |
Linoleic acid, thymoquinone,
nigellone (dithymoquinone), melanthin, nigilline |
Anti-histamine, anti-oxidant, anti-allergic, anti-infective, digestive, broncho-dialating |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
10. |
Bargamot
oil (Citrus
× bergamia (Risso) (Risso & Poit.)
|
Bergamot |
Peel |
Colour: Golden yellow amber clear liquid Odor: Citrus woody orange odor |
Linalyl acetate, linalool, limonene,
nerol, terpenes |
Analgesic, antidepressant,
antiseptic, antibiotic, deodorant, digestive, febrifuge, insect repellents |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
11. |
Cade oil (Juniperus
oxycedrus L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Cade Juniper |
Branches and heartwood |
Colour: Dark red-brown colour viscous liquid Odor: Strong empyreumatic tar-like odor & warm bitter taste |
Cadinene, cadinol, p-cresol, guaiacol |
Analgesic, antimicrobial,
antipruritic, antiseptic, disinfectant, parasiticide, vermifuge |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
12. |
Cajeput oil (Melaleuca
cajuputi Maton & Sm. ex R. Powell)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Cajeput, White tea tree |
Leaves & Twigs |
Colour: Colorless to pale yellow Odor: Eucalyptus like, camphoraceous odor |
Cajeputene hydrate, eucalyptol,
cajuputol, terpineol |
Analgesic, antimicrobial, antineuralgi, anthelminthi, diaphoretic,
carminative, expectorant, febrifuge, insecticide, sudorific |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
13. |
Camphor oil (Cinnamomum
camphora (L.) (J. Presl)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Camphor tree |
Woods |
Colour: Colorless
to pale yellow liquid Odor: Camphorous odor |
Ketones, Safrole, Phenolic Ethers,
Borneol, Terpene Alcohol and Pinene |
Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral,
bactericidal, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant, rubefacient, vermifuge |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
14. |
Cardamom
oil (Elettaria
cardamomum (L.) Maton)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Cardamom |
Fruits |
Colour: Pale yellow liquid Odor: Sweet spicy, warming fragrance [10] |
Terpinyl acetate, cineol, limonene,
sabinene, linalol, linalyl acetate, pinene, zingiberene |
Antiseptic, antispasmodic,
aphrodisiac, carminative, cephalic, digestive, stimulant, stomachic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
15. |
Cedarwood
oil (Cedrus
deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Devdar, Himalayan Cedar |
Woods |
Colour: Light golden yellow viscous transparent liquid Odor: Woody, sweet, slight aroma |
atlantone, caryophyllene, cedrol,
cadinene, a-cedrene, b-cedrene, thujopsene, sesquiterpenes |
Antiseborrhoeic, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicide
insecticide, sedative |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
16. |
Chamomile
oil (Matricaria
chamomilla L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Chamomile |
Flowers |
Colour: Pale yellow to amber liquid Odor: Herbal like chamomile odor |
Chamazulene, bisabolol oxide A, a-bisabolol, bisabolol oxide B &
bisabolone oxide, flavonoids, coumarins |
Analgesic, anti-depressant, antispasmodic,
antiseptic, antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, anti-infectious, anti-neuralgic, carminative, vulnerary, sedative, nervine,
digestive, tonic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
17. |
Chamomile
oil (Roman) (Anthemis
nobilis L.) IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Roman camomile |
Flowers |
Colour: Pale yellow clear liquid Odor: Sweet, spicy, fresh, herbal, green odor |
Angelic, azulene, methacrylic,
butyric and tiglic acids |
Analgesic, anti-spasmodic, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, anti-infectious, antidepressant,
antineuralgic, carminative, sedative, nervine
|
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
18. |
Champaca
oil (Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre) [12]
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Champa |
Flowers |
Colour: Reddish Brown transparent liquid Odor: Unique and appealing fragrance |
Linalool, benzyl acetate, beta-lonone, phenyl ethyl alcohol |
Aphrodisiac, emollient, febrifuge;
warming, calming, reducing stress, euphoriatic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
19. |
Chulmoogra
oil
IUCN status: Vulnerable (VU) |
Chaulmoogra
|
Seeds |
Colour- Pale yellow viscous liquid Odor- Strong, woody aroma |
Oleic, palmitic, linoleic, linolenic,
stearic |
Anti-leprosy, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, larvicidal, antioxidant, |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
20 |
Cinnamon oil [10, 11, 14] (Cinnamomum verum J.Presl) [12]
|
Cinnamon |
Stem, Bark |
Colour: A yellow to brownish liquid Odor: Sweet, warm spicy, dry, tenacious odor |
Eugenol, benzyl benzoate, cinnamaldehyde |
Antibacterial, Antidiabetic,
Antiinflammatory, Antioxidant, Antipyretic, Immunological effects,
Insecticidal |
[10, 11, 12, 14]
|
|
21. |
Citriodora
oil (Eucalyptus
citriodora Hook.) IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Eucalyptus |
Leaves |
Colour- Vintage oils turn slightly yellow Odor-Fresh, Cooling, Camphoraceous, woody
undertones |
Citronellal, citronellol, Geraniol, pinene |
Antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal,
deodorant, expectorant, fungicidal, insecticide |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
22. |
Citronella oil (Cymbopogon
winterianus Jowitt ex Bor)
|
Java citronella |
Leaves |
Colour- Pale yellow to dark yellow clear liquid Odor-Fresh, sweet, weedy, woody odor |
Geraniol; citronellic acid, borneol,
citronellol, citronellal, camphene, dipentene and limonene |
Antiseptic, bactericidal, deodorant,
warming, mood uplifter, and insecticide |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
23. |
Clary Sage oil (Salvia
sclarea L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Clary sage |
Flowering tops |
Colour- Colorless to brown yellow clear liquid Odor: Fresh weedy, spicy-like herbal tea odor |
Linalyl acetate, linalol, pinene, myrcene and phellandrene |
Anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsive,
antidepressant, antiseptic, nervine, astringent, bactericidal |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
24. |
Clove oil (Syzygium
aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry)
|
Clove |
Bud |
Colour: Pale yellow liquid Odor: Sweet spicy Odor [10] |
Eugenol, eugenyl acetate |
Anesthetic, Antibacterial,
Anticancerous, Anti-inflammatory, Antioxidant,
Antipyretic, Antithrombotic, Antiviral,
Insecticidal |
[10, 11, 12, 14] |
|
25. |
Coffee oil (Coffea
arabica L.) IUCN status: Endangered (EN) |
Coffee beans |
Seeds |
Colour- Dark Brown Odor- Fresh brewed pot of coffee odor |
Caffeine |
Antioxidant, diuretic, stimulant,
deodorizer |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
26. |
Coriander
oil [10, 11, 14] (Coriandrum
sativum L.) [12]
|
Coriander |
Fruits |
Colour: A colourless to pale yellow liquid Odor: Sweet, woody-spicy, slightly musky odor |
Linalool, decyl aldehyde, borneol, geraniol, carvone,
anethole |
Aflatoxin, Antimicrobial,
Antioxidant, Insecticidal |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
27. |
Costus oil (Saussurea
costus (Falc.) Lipsch.)
IUCN status: Critically Endangered (CE) |
Costus |
Roots |
Colour: Yellow to brownish-yellow viscous liquid Odor: Extremely
tenacious odor |
Sesquiterpene lactones |
Antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral,
bactericidal, carminative, digestive, expectorant, febrifuge, stimulant |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
28. |
Cumin Oil (Cuminum cyminum L.)
|
Cumin |
Fruits |
Colour- Pale yellow or greenish liquid Odor- Warm, soft, spicy-musky odor |
Cuminaldehyde, b-pinene, cis-β-farnesene |
Antimicrobial, antioxidant,
antispasmodic, carminative, chemoprotective,
stimulant |
[10, 11, 12, 14] |
|
29. |
Custard
Apple oil (Annona
squamosa L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Custard Apple |
Seeds |
Colour- Pale green to lemony thick liquid Odor- Sweet, woody aroma |
A & ß-pinene, E-ocimene, germacrene-D, methyl and ethyl butanoate |
Anti-rheumatic, astrigent, emmenagogue,
febrifuge, purgative, tonic, digestive |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
30. |
Cypress oil
(Cupressus
sempervirens L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Cypress |
Needles |
Colour: Pale amber clear oily liquid Odor: Sweet, balsamic and spicy odor |
Pinene, camphene, sylvestrene,
cymene, sabinol |
Antirheumatic, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, astringent, deodorant, diuretic, hepatic, styptic,
sudorific, tonic, vasoconstrictive |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
31. |
Cypriol oil
(Nagarmotha oil) (Cyperus
scariosus R.Br.) |
Nagarmotha |
Roots |
Colour: Amber clear viscous liquid Odor: Woody, earthy, spicy like cinnamon odor |
Cyperone, selinene, cyperene,
cyperotundone, patchoulenone, sugeonol, kobusone, isokobusone |
Antiseptic, demulcent, diaphoretic,
diuretic, febrifuge, stimulant, tonic |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
32. |
Davana oil (Artemisia
pallens Wall. ex DC.)
|
Davana |
Flowering tops |
Colour: Pale yellow to yellowish-brown clear liquid Odor: Fruity, leafy, balsam, raisin-like odor. |
Davanone, bicyclogermacrene, davana
ether, ethyl cinnamate, |
Antidepressant, anti-infectious, aphrodisiac, calmative,
emollient, mucolytic, nervine, stimulator |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
33. |
Elemi oil (Canarium
luzonicum (Blume) A.Gray)
IUCN status: Near Threatened |
Manila Elemi, |
Resin |
Colour-Pale Yellow Liquid Odor- Fresh, balsamic-spicy, lemonlike odor |
Phellandrene, dipentene, elemol,
elemicin, terpineol, carvone and terpinolene |
Antiseptic, analgesic, anti-infectious, cicatrisant, expectorant,
stimulant, |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
34. |
Eucalyptus oil (Eucalyptus
globulus Labill.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Eucalyptus |
Leaves & branches |
Colour-Colourless to pale yellow clear liquid Odor-Fresh, balsamic, camphor-like odor. |
Cineol, pinene, limonene, cymene, phellandrene, terpinene,
aromadendrene |
Aperitif, antiseptic, antispasmodic,
antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, carminative, depurative, deodorant,
parasiticide |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
35. |
Frankincense
oil (Boswellia
serrata Roxb.) |
Frankincense, Luban, Gond |
Resin |
Colour- Pale-yellow or pale-amber in color Odor- Strong, fresh, balsamic scent |
Beta-caryophyllene, alpha-copaene, alpha-humulene, caryophyllene oxide |
Antiseptic, astringent, carminative,
digestive, diuretic, sedative |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
36. |
Gandhapura
oil/ Gandharan oil (Gaultheria
fragrantissima Wall.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Gandhapura, Indian wintergreen |
Seeds |
Colour- Brownish liquid Odor- Typical aroma |
Gaultherin and salicylic acid |
Antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, stimulator, repellent,
pain reliever, antibacterial, antiseptic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
37. |
Geranium oil (Pelargonium
graveolens L'Hér.)
|
Geranium |
Leaves, stalks and flowers |
Colour- Yellow-green to green clear liquid Odor-Floral, green, spicy & rosy odor |
Citronellol, geraniol, linalol, menthone, phellandrene, sabinene,
limonene |
Antidepressant, antihaemorrhagic,
anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent,
cicatrisant, deodorant |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
38. |
Ginger oil (Zingiber
officinaler Roscoe)
IUCN status: data
deficient |
Ginger |
|
Colour: A pale yellow, amber or greenish liquid Odor: A warm, slightly green, fresh, woody-spicy odor |
Gingerol, shogoal, citral, zingiberene, ar-curcumene |
Anticancer, Anticonvulsive,
Antiinflammatory, Antioxidant, Antiplatelet, Anti-ulcer, Cardiovascular |
[10, 11, 12, 13, 14] |
|
39. |
Ginger grass
oil (Cymbopogon
martini (Roxb.) (W. Watson) |
Ginger grass |
Leaves |
Colour: Yellow to light brown liquid Odor: Sharp, green scent with pepper and
lemon undertones odor |
Geraniol; farnesol, geranyl acetate,
methylheptenone, citronellol |
Antiseptic, bactericidal,
cicatrisant, digestive, febrifuge, hydrating, stimulant |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
40. |
Grapefruit oil [10, 14] (Citrus
× paradisi Macfad.) [12]
|
Grapefruit |
Peel |
Colour- Yellowish to reddish yellow clear liquid Odor-sweet dry citrus grapefruit odor |
Limonene, cadinene, paradisiol, neral, geraniol,
citronellal, sinensal |
Antiseptic, antitoxic, astringent,
bactericidal, diuretic, depurative, stimulant |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
41. |
Hedychium oil (Hedychium
spicatum sm.)
IUCN status: Data Deficient |
Ginger lily |
Roots (rhizomes) |
Colour: Pale yellow viscous liquid Odor: Warm woody, slightly spicy, slightly
sweet smell |
Ethyl ester of p-methoxy cinnamic acid,
sesquiterpenes, methyl paracumarine acetate |
Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, carminative, digestive, expectorant,
stimulant |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
42. |
Henna oil (Lawsonia
inermis L.) IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Henna |
Leaves |
Colour: Rich orange thick liquid Odor: Luscious floral aroma |
Ethyl hexadecanoate, (E)-methyl cinnamate, isocaryophyllene, ß-ionone and methyl linolenate |
Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, nti dandruff,
antifungal, antiparasitic, molluscicidal, antioxidant, hepatoprotective,
central nervous |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
43. |
Holy Basil (Ocimum
sanctum L.)
|
Holy Basil, Tulsi |
Leaves & Seeds |
Colour: Pale yellow to yellow colour Odor: Sweet, Pungent and typical odor of Eugenol |
Eugenol (1-hydroxy-2-methoxy-4-allylbenzene) |
Antidepressant, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, carminative, cephalic, digestive |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
44. |
Jasmin oil (Jasminum
officinale L.)
|
Common Jasmine |
Flowers |
Colour: Deep brown with a golden tinge viscous liquid Odor: A warm, floral, exotic odor |
Benzyl acetate, linalol, phenylacetic
acid, benzyl alcohol, farnesol, methyl anthranilate, cis-jasmone, methyl jasmonate |
Analgesic (mild), antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac,
carminative, cicatrisant, expectorant, galactagogue, parturient, sedative, tonic |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
45. |
Jasminum
Sambac oil (Jasminum
sambac (L.) Aiton) |
Jasmine |
Flowers |
Colour: Deep brown with a golden tinge viscous liquid Odor: Warm, floral, exotic, honey/tea notes odor |
Benzyl acetate, linalol, phenylacetic
acid, benzyl alcohol, farnesol, methyl anthranilate, cis-jasmone, methyl jasmonate |
Analgesic (mild), antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac,
carminative, cicatrisant, expectorant, galactagogue, parturient, sedative,
tonic |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
46. |
Juniper
Berry oil (Juniperus
communis L.)
|
Common Juniper |
Berry |
Colour: Pale yellow clear liquid Odor: A fresh, clear, slightly woody aroma |
Monoterpenes; sabinene, limonene, cymene, thujene
and camphene |
antidepressant, antiseptic,
astringent, cicatrisant, diuretic, deodorant, haemostatic, styptic, sedative,
tonic |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
47. |
Kewra oil [10, 14] (Pandanus
odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze) [12]
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) [13] |
Kewra/ Kevada |
Flowers |
--- |
2-phenylethyl-methylether |
Antioxident, aanti-septic antifungal, anti-inflammatory, Immune enhancer |
[12, 13, 14] |
|
48. |
Lavender oil (Lavandula
officinalis Chaix Syn. Lavandula angustifolia subsp. angustifolia)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Lavender |
Flowers |
Colour: Colourless to pale yellow liquid Odor: Sweet, floral-herbaceous scent and balsamic-woody undertone |
Linalyl acetate, linalol, lavandulol,
lavandulyl acetate, terpineol, cineol, limonene, ocimene,
caryophyllene |
Analgesic, anticonvulsive,
antidepressant, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, deodorant, diuretic, emmenagogue, hypotensive, insecticide,
nervine |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
49. |
Melissa oil (Melissa
officinalis L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Lemon Balm, Lemon Balsam |
Flowers & Leaves |
Colour: Yellow color Odor-Fresh, lemony, herbaceous scent |
Citral, citronellol, eugenol,
geraniol, linalyl acetate |
Antidepressant, antihistaminic, antispasmodic,
bactericidal, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge,
hypertensive, insectrepellent, nervine, sedative |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
50. |
Lemon oil (Citrus × limon (L.) Osbeck) |
Lemon |
Peel |
Colour: Pale yellow with a greenish tint Odor: A strong, clear, citrus odor |
Limonene, citral, geranial,
citronellyl acetate, pinene, carotene, pectin |
Anti-anaemic, antimicrobial,
antirheumatic, antiscorbutic, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, antitoxic, cicatrisant, haemostatic, hypotensive,
insecticidal, rubefacient, stimulates white corpuscles, vermifuge |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
51. |
Lemon
Verbena oil (Aloysia
citrodora Paláu) |
Verbena Lemon |
Leaves |
Colour: A pale olive or yellow liquid Odor: A sweet, fresh, lemony, fruity-floral, fragrance |
Citral, nerol, geraniol |
Antiseptic, antispasmodic, antibacterial, antiseptic,
carminative, detoxifying, digestive, hepatobiliary, stimulant, sedative,
stomachic |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
52. |
Lemongrass oil (Cymbopogon
citratus (DC.) Stapf) |
Lemon grass |
Leaves |
Colour: Pale yellow to yellow liquid Odor: Lemony, green, citral, floral and citrus-like odor |
Citral, myrcene, dipentene,
methylheptenone, linalol, geraniol, nerol, citronellol, farnesol |
Analgesic, antidepressant,
antimicrobial, anti-oxidant,
antipyretic, antiseptic, astringent, bactericidal,
carminative, deodorant |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
53. |
Lily oil (Lilium
auratum Lindl.) |
Lily |
Flower Petals |
Colour: Pale yellow clear liquid Odor: Rich, warm, heady floral and yet subtle aroma |
Polysaccharides and saponins |
Antidepressant, anti-tumor, hypoglycemic, antibacterial,
anti-oxidation, anti-inflammatory |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
54. |
Melissa oil (Melissa
officinalis L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Lemon balm |
Leaves & Tops |
Colour: Pale yellow liquid Odor: Sweet citrus citronella odor |
Citral, citronellol, eugenol,
geraniol, linalyl acetate |
Antidepressant, antihistaminic,
antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic,
emmenagogue, hypertensive, insect-repellent, nervine, sedative |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
55. |
Mentha
Citrata oil (Mentha
citrata Ehrh.)
|
Mentha |
Leaves |
Colour: Colourless to yellowish clear liquid Odor: Sweet fresh clary lavender Bergamot odor |
Linalyl acetate, linalool, terpenes |
Deodorant, expectorant, parasiticide, perfume, sedative, stimulant, stomachic, tonic |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
56. |
Mint oil (Mentha
arvensis L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Corn mint, Wild mint |
Leaves & Stem |
Colour: Clear to pale yellow, sometimes greenish thin liquid Odor: Fresh, sweet, menthol-minty, herbaceous fragrance |
Menthol, menthone, menthyl acetate,
cineole, limonene, phellandrene, pinene, β-caryophyllene |
Anaesthetic, antimicrobial,
antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, cytotoxic, digestive,
expectorant, stimulant, stomachic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
57. |
Myrrh oil (Commiphora
myrrha (T.Nees) Engl.]
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Commiphora myrrha |
Resin |
Colour: Yellow
amber to the greenish-brown
clear oily liquid Odor: Rich, balsamic, spicy, warm, earthy, woody aroma |
Heerabolene, limonene, dipentene, pinene, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde,
cuminaldehyde, cadinene |
Anticatarrhal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial,
antiphlogistic, astringent, expectorant, antiseptic, fungicidal,
revitalizing, sedative, stimulant-digestive, pulmonary tonic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
58. |
Myrtle oil (Myrtus
communis Blanco)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Common myrtle, Roman myrtle |
Leaves & Tops |
Colour: Pale amber liquid Odor: Fresh camphor floral-herbal odor |
Cineol, myrtenol, pinene, geraniol,
linalol, camphene |
Anticatarrhal, antiseptic (urinary, pulmonary), astringent, balsamic, bactericidal, expectorant,
regulator, slightly sedative |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
59. |
Neroli
essential oil, Orange
blossom oil (Citrus
× aurantium L.)
|
Bitter orange |
Flowers |
Colour: Coffee brown clear liquid Odor: Sweet floral fragrance |
Linalol, linalyl acetate, limonene, pinene,
nerolidol, geraniol, nerol, methyl anthranilate, indole, citral, jasmone |
Antidepressant, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative,
cicatrisant, cordial, deodorant, fungicidal, hypnotic, stimulant, tonic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
60. |
Nutmeg essential
oil (Myristica
fragrans Houtt.) IUCN status: Data Deficient (DD) |
Nutmeg |
Leaves & Twigs |
Colour: Pale yellow clear liquid Odor: Spicy, woody, nutmeg fragrance |
Monoterpene hydrocarbons, terpinen-4-ol, pinene, sabinene, cineole, camphene,
limonene, myristicin, alpha terpenene. |
Analgesic, antiemetic, antioxidant,
antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac,
carminative, secretory stimulant, larvicidal, orexigenic, prostaglandin
inhibitor |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
61. |
Palmarosa oil (Cymbopogon
martini (Roxb.) Will.Watson)
|
Palmarosa Grass |
Leaves |
Colour: Yellow clear liquid Odor: Floral, woody and slight hint of citrusy fragrances |
Geraniol, farnesol, geranyl acetate, methyl heptenone,
citronellol, citral, dipentene, limonene |
Antiseptic, bactericidal,
cicatrisant, digestive, febrifuge, hydrating, stimulant (digestive, circulatory) |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
62. |
Patchouli oil (Pogostemon
cablin (Blanco) Benth.)
|
Patchouly or Pachouli |
Leaves |
Colour: Brownish-orange reddish clear liquid Odor: Heavy, exotic, rich, balsamic, herbaceous aroma |
Patchouli alcohol, pogostol,
bulnesol, nor patchoulenol, bulnese, patchoulene |
Antiseptic, antifungal,
antidepressant, sedative, nerve tonic, aphrodisia stimulant |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
63. |
Peppermint
Oil (Mentha
× piperita L.)
|
Peppermint/Mentha |
Leaves & Stem |
Colour: Clear to pale-yellow, sometimes greenish thin liquid Odor: Fresh, sweet, menthol-minty, herbaceous fragrance |
Menthol, menthone, menthyl acetate,
menthofuran, limonene, pulegone, cineol |
Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial,
antiphlogistic, antipruritic, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, antiviral, astringent, carminative, cephalic, nervine |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
64. |
Peru Balsam
oil (Myroxylon
balsamum (L.) Harms)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Peru Balsam |
Bark |
Colour: Dark brown viscous liquid Odor: Sweet cinnamon vanilla balsam |
Resin, cinnamic, benzoic acids,
terpenes, eugenol, vanillin |
Antitussive, antiseptic, balsamic,
expectorant, stimulant |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
65. |
Petitgrain oil (Citrus
× aurantium L.) |
Bitter orange tree |
Leaves & Twigs |
Colour: Clear to a yellow tinge transparent liquid Odor: Fresh, floral,
citrusy, lighter in fragrance than neroli and slightly woody fragrance |
Linalyl acetate, linalol, nerol,
alpha-terpineol, geranyl acetate, limonene,
myrcene |
Antiseptic, antispasmodic, deodorant,
digestive, nervine, stimulant (digestive, nervous), stomachic, tonic |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
66. |
Pimento
Berry oil (Pimenta
dioica (L.) Merr.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Pimento, Allspice, Jamaica pepper, |
Berries |
Colour: Colorless yellow or reddish-yellow liquid Odor: A spicy odor |
Eugenol, methyl eugenol, cineol, Phellandrene, caryophyllene |
Anaesthetic, analgesic, antioxidant,
antiseptic, carminative, muscle relaxant, rubefacient,
stimulant, tonic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
67. |
Pine essential
oil (Pinus
sylvestris L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Pine |
Needles, twigs and cones |
Colour: Colorless to amber clear oily liquid Odor: Fresh, sweet-resinous, woody, turpentine, coniferous, balsamic
fragrance |
Monoterpene hydrocarbons, bornyl acetate, cineol, citral,
chamazulene |
Antimicrobial, antineuralgic,
antirheumatic, antiscorbutic, antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, balsamic,
cholagogue, choleretic, deodorant, stimulant |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
68. |
Babchi oil (Psoralea
corylifolia L.) (syn. Cullen
corylifolium (L.) Medik.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Psoralea oil, Babchi oil |
Seeds |
Colour: Greenish liquid Odor: A sweet balsamic aroma |
Limonene, 4-terpineol, linalool, angelicin,
geranylacetate, psoralene, bachiol, β-caryophelenoxide |
Anthelmintic, aphrodisiac purgative, stimulant, stomachic, vulnerary |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
69. |
Rose oil (Centifolia) (Rosa
× centifolia L.)
|
Rose |
Flowers |
Colour: Pale yellow clear liquid Odor: A sweet, floral, rosy odor |
Citronellol, phenyl ethanol, geraniol,
nerol, stearopten, farnesol |
Antidepressant, antiphlogistic,
antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitubercular, antiviral, aphrodisiac,
astringent, bactericidal, choleretic, cicitrisant, haemostatic, hepatic,
laxative, sedative (nervous) |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
70. |
Rose oil (Damascena) (Rosa
× damascena Herrm.)
|
Rose |
Flowers |
Colour: Deep yellow to brownish red thick liquid Odor: A floral,
honey-like, intense and sweet odor |
Citronellol, phenyl ethanol,
geraniol, nerol, stearopten, farnesol |
Antidepressant, antiphlogistic,
antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitubercular, antiviral, aphrodisiac,
astringent, bactericidal, cicitrisant, haemostatic, hepatic,
laxative, sedative |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
71. |
Rosemary oil (Salvia
rosmarinus Spenn.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Rosemary |
Leaves and flowering tops |
Colour: Colorless to a pale yellow clear liquid Odor: Herbal, camphor, woody, and balsam fragrance |
Pinenes, camphene, limonene, cineol, borneol with camphor, linalol,
terpineol, octanone, bornyl acetate |
Analgesic, antibacterial, antidepressant antifungal, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cholagogue, hypertensive, nervine |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
72. |
Sandalwood oil (Santalum
album L.)
IUCN status: Vulnerable (VU) |
Indian Sandalwood |
Woods |
Colour: A pale yellow, greenish or brownish
viscous liquid Odor: A deep, soft, sweet-woody balsamic scent |
Santalols, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons |
Antidepressant, antiphlogistic,
antiseptic (urinary and pulmonary), antispasmodic, aphrodisiac,
astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, diuretic,
expectorant, fungicidal, insecticidal, sedative, tonic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
73. |
Spearmint essential
oil (Mentha
spicata L.) IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Spearmint |
Leaves |
Colour: Colorless to pale yellow clear oily liquid Odor: A minty, slightly fruity aroma that is less bright than
peppermint |
L-carvone, dihydrocarvone, phellandrene, limonene, menthone,
menthol, pulegone, cineol, linalol, pinenes |
Anaesthetic, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue,
decongestant, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, hepatic,
nervine, stimulant, stomachic, tonic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
74. |
Spikenard oil
(Jatamansi oil) (Nardostachys
jatamansi (D.Don) DC.)
IUCN status: Critically
Endangered (CE) |
Spikenard, Jatamansi, Indian Nard |
Roots (Rhizomes) |
Colour: Amner clear liquid-liquid Odor: A sweet, woody, spicy like valerian, and ginger odor |
Bornyl acetate, isobornyl
valerianate, borneol, patchouli alcohol, terpinyl
valerianate, terpineol, eugenol, pinenes |
Anti-inflammatory, antipyretic,
bactericidal, deodorant, fungicidal, laxative, sedative, tonic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
75. |
St. John's Wort Oil (Hypericum
perforatum L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Klamath weed, Tipton's weed |
Flowers |
Colour: Brownish-reddish oil Odor: Floral, characteristics odor |
Glycosides, flavonoids, tannins,
resin, volatile oil |
Antidepressant, diuretic,
expectorant, hypertensive, insecticidal, restorative, rubefacient, stimulant (adrenal cortex & nervous system) |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
76. |
Sugandh
Mantri oil (Homalomena
aromatica (Spreng.) Schott) |
Sugandhmantri |
Crushed roots |
Colour: Light yellow Odor: Refreshing pleasant spicy & a typical note of
linalool |
Thymol, pinene, methyl anthranilate,
indole, benzyl alcohol |
Antidepressant Anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, assists
in meditation, for spiritual healing, calming the nerves |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
77. |
Sweet orange
oil (Citrus
× sinensis (L.) Osbeck)
|
Sweet orange |
Peel |
Colour: Yellow-orange to deep orange clear liquid Odor: Fruity, sweet, citrusy fragrances |
Limonene, linalool, citronellal,
neral, geranial, pinene, sabinene, myrcene, aldehyde, terpineol, carotin |
Antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, bactericidal, carminative, choleretic, digestive,
fungicidal, hypotensive, sedative (nervous), stimulant, stomachic |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
78. |
Tagetes oil (Tagetes
minuta L.)
|
Wild Marigold, Mexican marigold |
Flowering tops |
Colour: Yellow-amber viscous liquid Odor: Fruity, green, herbal fragrance |
Tagetone, ocimene, myrcene, linalol, limonene, pinenes, carvone,
citral, camphene, valeric acid, salicylaldehyde |
Anthelmintic, antispasmodic,
bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, insecticide, sedative, stomachic |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
79. |
Tangerine (Mandarine) oil (Citrus
× reticulata Blanco) [12] |
European mandarin, Tangerine, True
mandarin |
Peel |
Colour: Yellowy orange color Odor: Fresh orange mandarin odor |
Limonene, methyl methylanthranilate, geraniol, citral, citronellal |
Antiseptic, antispasmodic,
carminative, digestive, sedative, stimulant |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
80. |
Tea tree
oil (Melaleuca
alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel)
|
Tea Tree |
Leaves |
Colour- Pale yellow Odor-Spicy, warm, terpene, nutmeg-like fragrance |
Terpinene-4-ol, cineol, pinene, terpinenes, cymene,
sesquiterpenes |
Antimicrobial, antiseptic,
bactericide, cicatrisant, expectorant, fungicide, insecticide, stimulant |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
81 |
Thuja wood
oil (Thuja
occidentalis L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Thuja, Yellow Cedar |
Wood |
Colour: Clear yellow to completely colorless Odor: Sweet Odor |
Thujone, fenchone, camphor, sabinene, pinene |
Antirheumatic, astringent, diuretic,
emmenagogue, expectorant, insect repellent, rubefacient,
stimulant |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
82. |
Thyme oil (Thymus
vulgaris L.)
IUCN status: : Least concern (LC) |
Thyme |
Leaves and flowers |
Colour: A red, brown or orange liquid Odor: A warm, spicy herbaceous, powerful odor
|
Thymol, carvacrol, cymene, terpinene,
camphene, borneol, linalol |
Anthelmintic, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, antiputrescent, antirheumatic, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, antitussive, antitoxic, aperitif, astringent, aphrodisiac,
hypertensive, nervine, rubefacient, stimulant |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
83. |
Turmeric leaf
oil (Curcuma
longa L.)
IUCN status: Data Deficient (DD) |
Turmeric |
Leaves |
Colour: Yellow
to slightly yellow-green
thin liquid Odor: Spicy, earthy, warm odor |
Tumerone, tumerone, atlantones, zingiberene, cineol,
borneol, sabinene and phellandrene |
Analgesic, antiarthritic, anticancer,
anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, bactericidal, cholagogue, digestive,
hypotensive, insecticidal, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
84. |
Vanilla essential
oil (Vanilla
planifolia Andrews)
IUCN status: Endangered (EN) |
Vanilla |
Fruits |
Colour: Dark Brown Odor: Sweet, Vanilla |
Vanillin, eugenol, caproic acid |
Anticarcinogenic, Antidepressant, Antioxidant, Aphrodisiac, Febrifuge, Relaxing Sedative, Tranquilizing |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
85. |
Valerian root
oil (Valeriana
officinalis L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Valerian |
Roots (Rhizomes) |
Colour: Olive-green clear liquid Odor: Earthy, woody, slightly sweet scent |
Bornyl acetate, isovalerate, valerianol, caryophyllene, pinenes,
valeranone, ionone, borneol, patchouli alcohol |
Antidandruff, antidepressant,
diuretic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, hypotensive, regulator,
sedative |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
86. |
Vetiver oil (Chrysopogon
zizanioides (L.) Roberty)
|
Vetiver |
Roots |
Colour: Yellow-brown viscous liquid Odor: Woody, rooty, balsam odor |
Vetiverol, vitivone, terpenes |
Antiseptic, antispasmodic,
depurative, rubefacient, sedative, stimulant, tonic |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
87. |
Wintergreen
oil (Gaultheria procumbens L.) |
Checkerberry, Boxberry |
Leaves |
Colour:
Pale yellow to reddish
brown Odor:
Sweet Wintergreen odor |
Methyl salicylate, formaldehyde,
gaultheriline |
anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic,
antitussive, astringent, carminative, diuretic,
emmenagogue, stimulant |
[10, 12, 14] |
|
88. |
Wormwood essential
oil (Artemisia
absinthium L.)
IUCN status: |
Wormwood |
Leaves and Twigs |
Colour: Dark Green liquid Odor: An aromatic earthy odor |
Thujone, azulenes, terpenes |
Anthelmintic, choleretic, deodorant,
emmenagogue, febrifuge, insect repellent, narcotic,
stimulant, tonic, vermifuge |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
89. |
Yarrow essential
oil (Achillea
millefolium L.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Common Yarrow |
Flowers |
Colour- Pale greenish blue to Dark Blue Odor-Sweet, Herbaceous, & Spicy Tone |
Azulene, caryophyllene, thujone,
eucalyptol, pinene, borneol |
Aphrodisiac, antiseptic, cicatrisant,
nervine, tonic, sedative, vulnerary |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
90. |
Ylang ylang
oil (Cananga oil) (Cananga
odorata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Ylang Ylang |
Flowers |
Colour- Pale yellow clear liquid Odor-Fresh, floral, sweet, slightly
fruity, fragrant yet delicate |
Methyl benzoate, methyl salicylate,
methyl benzyl acetate, eugenol, geraniol,
linalol, terpenes |
Aphrodisiac, antidepressant, anti-infectious, antiseborrhoeic, antiseptic, euphoric, hypotensive,
nervine, regulator, sedative |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
91. |
Hyssop oil (Hyssopus
officinalis L.)
IUCN status: Data Deficient (DD) |
Hyssop |
Flower and Leaves |
Colour: A colourless to pale yellowy-green liquid Odor: Sweet, camphorous odor |
Pinocamphone, isopinocamphone,
estragole, borneol, geraniol, limonene, thujone,
myrcene, caryophyllene |
Astringent, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, cicatrisant,
emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, hypertensive,
nervine, sedative |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
|
92. |
Zanthoxylum
oil (Zanthoxylum
armatum DC.)
IUCN status: Least concern (LC) |
Prickly Ash |
Fruits |
Colour: Pale yellow to Reddish Brown Liquid Odor: Fresh Sweet Wintergreen odor |
a-pinene, sabinene, ß-myrcene, ß-pinene, limonene, ß-phellandrene, linalool, trans methyl
cinnamate |
Analgesic, antibiotic, antiseptic,
carminative, febrifuge, odontalgic, sedative, stimulant, stomachic, tonic |
[10, 12, 13, 14] |
2.2 Ayurvedic
herbalism
It is an ancient
science of India that heals various diseases and disorders through various
plants and their extracts, that’s why it is also known as a holistic healing
system or natural healing system of understanding the effects, benefits, and
inner workings of various herbal plants. It considers the taste, energy and
post-digestive effects of herbs, and explores their impact on the vata, pitta
and kapha doshas. This ancient science holds a long history of
the use of essential oils in the pre-vedic and vedic periods [10, 15-16]. The perfume and scented items were
renowned in this period for various religious and social practices. The utility of
jasmine, champak, lotus,
mango, hyacinth, basil, rose, lily, patchouli leaves, camphor, eucalyptus, sandalwood, and vetiver root in
various ayurvedic practices are mentioned in ancient literature. Ayurvedic texts
such as Charaka Samhita, Susruta Samhita, Ashtanga Hridaya, and Ashtanga Sangraha,
mentioned the use of essential oils containing aromatic herbs, resin, barks,
leaves, exudates, twigs, roots and seeds, for medicine, beauty aids, cosmetics,
and as a deodorant. In Indian
religion, incense (Dhupan) was used in
worship to offer God. According to Ayurveda, Dhupan is highly beneficial for
disinfecting the body or the room
because it includes aromatic essential oil which is rich in various biological
activities. Scented oils (Sugandh tailas) were used
topically to treat various skin
disorders. There are some
health-protective and
disease-eliminating practices in Ayurveda
named ‘Abhyanga’ include massage of
the body with aromatic oils for healthy, smooth skin; Udvartanam includes
massage with herbal, scented powder to regulate blood circulation and weight
loss; Sugandha Paniya includes a sprinkling of scented water on the body. Other ancient
literature mentions that the body becomes redolent by drinking scented water of
sandalwood, cardamom, usira (vetiver), and tagra (Indian valerian). ‘Varahamihira’ mentioned a scent
known as ‘Smaroddipana’ made from leaves
of Cinnamomum tamala Nees & Eberm (patra), Tagetes
erecta L. (Turuska), Valeriana
jatamansi Jones ex Roxb. (Tagara). Also, a scent
name ‘Bakula’ is made by
fumigation of Smaroddipana ingredients with Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. (katuka) and Commiphora
mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Engl (Guggulu). Elettaria
cardamomum (L.) Maton (Ela, cardamom), Syzygium
aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry (Clove), Piper cubeba
L.f. (Kakkola), Myristica
fragrans Houtt. (Jaatiphala), and Cinnamomum
camphora (L.) J.Presl (camphor) is used as a
mouth freshener. Clove oil is used
for dental emergencies; turmeric for microbial infection and skin diseases; basil for inflammation
and heart diseases and cinnamon to stimulate circulation etc. [11, 15, 16, 23].
This holistic
health care system prescribes the usage of different medicated oils for
application on the body, with or without massage for providing health benefits
and to treat specific indications. While most of the medicated
oils are for external usage, certain types of medicated oils that are processed
with milk are administered orally also.
Ayurvedic text with properties and uses
of the essential oil-
Tailaṁ svayonivattatra mukhyaṁ tīkṣṇaṁ vyavāyi ca.
Tvagdoṣakṛdacakṣuṣyaṁ sūkṣmoṣṇaṁ kaphakṛnna ca.
Kṛśānāṁ bṛṁhaṇāyālaṁ sthūlānāṁ karśanāya ca.
Bahuviṭkaṁ kṛmighnaṁ ca saṁskārāt sarvadoṣajit. (A.Hr.Sū.-5.55-56)
Vāgbhaṭa described the properties as: Oil is 'svayonivat' meaning it is similar in properties to the ingredients from which it is obtained. Mainly, oil is sharp and Vyavāyī in attribute. It causes skin diseases, is harmful for the eyes, enters in channels of the body due to minuteness, is hot in potency and does not vitiate Kapha [26, 29]. Vyavāyī means that which spreads in the body quickly or which first spreads into the body and then gets digested. That oil, etc. ingredients are called Vyavāyī.’Oil massage is capable of nourishing the lean person and makes obese person slim. It is more bulk promoting and vermicidal. With specific preparations the oil is capable of alleviating three Doṣa [26].
Here, the two qualities of oil are
explained-First is that oil makes
lean person obese and obese person slim. The reason behind it is that the channels
transporting Rasa, Rakta, etc. dhātu in body get constricted. Massage with oil, due to its scraping, minute,
easily penetrating properties enters in those channels and opens them. In this way, the
contraction of channels is removed and body gets nourished. Due to minuteness, oil on
massage enters into the channels of obese people
to remove cholesterol/ fat which makes him/her lean. Oil massage is very useful for all in pre-winter, rainy and Autumn seasons. Hence,
this fact is famous in Āyurveda- Ghṛtād
Daśaguṇam
Tailam mardne na tu bhakṣaṇe.’ means oil is ten times more beneficial than Ghṛta (Clarified
butter)
for massage but not for consumption
orally [30].
The second quality of the oil is that it pacifies all three doṣa with special preparation [30]. Oil is naturally Kaphavāta
alleviating due to hot potency and uncutous attribute. If it is especially prepared with candana,
etc. cold potency ingredients
then it pacifies Pitta also. Hence, due to special preparation, it is called Tridoṣa.
Properties
of oil derived from Nimba (Indian margosa)-
Nimbatailaṁ tu nātyuṣṇaṁ krimikuṣṭhakaphāpaham. Nimbataila.
(Rā.Ni.-15.117)
The oil derived from Neem seeds is not very hot in
potency. It is vermicidal,
treats leprosy and pacifies Kapha [27].
Properties of oil derived
from Kośāmra (Kusum tree)-
Saraṁ kośāmrajaṁ tailaṁ krimikuṣṭhavraṇāpaham.
Tiktāmlamadhuraṁ balyaṁ pathyaṁ rocanapācanam. Ābāḍela. (Rā.Ni.-15.123)
The oil derived from Kośāmra is laxative, treats worm
infestation, leprosy and wounds; is bitter, sour and sweet. It is a tonic, imparts taste and aids in
digestion [27].
Properties of oil derived from Karpūra (camphor)-
Karpūratailaṁ radadāḍharyakāri
vātāmayaghnaṁ kaṭu
pittakāri. Kāpurela.
Oil derived from Karpūra (camphor) strengthens the teeth, treats Vāta
diseases, is pungent in taste and aggravates Pitta [27].
Properties of
oil derived from seeds of Khasa (poppy seed)-
Tailaṁ tu khasabījānāṁ balyaṁ vṛṣyaṁ guru smṛtam.
Vātahṛt kaphahṛcchītaṁ svādupākarasaṁ ca tat. Khasakhasela. (Bhā.Pra.Ni.-20.21)
The oil derived from the seeds of Khasa is tonic,
aphrodisiac, and heavy in attributes. It pacifies Vāta and Kapha, is
cold in potency, sweet in taste and has a post-metabolic effect [28].
Importance of utility of oil-
Tailaprayogādjarā nirvikārā jitaklamāḥ.
Āsannatibalā yuddhe daityādhipatayaḥ purā.
In ancient time, by the use of oils denom kings/ chiefs became Ajara (devoid of old age), Nirvikāra (devoid of diseases), fatigue free and most
powerful in wars [30].
Tailaṁ na sevayed dhīmān yasya kasya ca yad
bhavet.
Viṣasāmyaguṇatvācca yogayogyaṁ na varjayet. (Rā.Ni.-15.127)
According to Rājanighaṇṭu - A wise man must not use
any oil without consulting a physician on
his own because oil has properties similar to poison. Hence, according to Āyurveda
where ever a particular oil is prescribed, there only that oil should be used
and not any other oil [27].
Oil is having poisonous effect; it is
described as-
Viṣasya tailasya na kiñcidantaraṁ mṛtasya suptasya tathā na
kiñcit.
Ṛṇasya
dāsasya na kiñcidantaraṁ mūrkhasya kāṣṭhasya ca naiva kiñcit. (Rā.Ni.-15.128)
There is no difference between dead and slept one, debt and
servant, fool and wooden lodge similarly in oil and poison, means oil is like
poison. So, it should be utilized safely
as prescribed [26-28].
According to Ayurveda, a state (increase or decrease) is called ‘dosa visamata’. A disturbed state or imbalance state of three doshas (vata, pitta, kapha) is the reason for various diseases [11, 17]. Ancient healing practices have various methods to balance tridoshas, but here, we present an insight into some essential oil-bearing aromatic plants used to pacify three doshas as follows (Fig.1)- Vaat dosha- Angelica glauca Edgew. (choraka), Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. (Brahmi), Amomum subulatum Roxb. (Brihat Ela), Cinnamomum verum J.Presl (Twak); Crocus sativus L. (Kumkum); Valeriana jatamansi Jones ex Roxb. (tagara/ jatamansi), Citrus × bergamia (Risso) Risso & Poit. (bergamot), Jasminum sp. (jasmine), Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Nutmeg). Pitta dosha- Coriandrum sativum L. (coriander), Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Mishreya/ Sweet fennel), Azadirachta indica A.Juss.(Nimba), Rosa × centifolia L. (rose/taruni), Lawsonia inermis L. (Henna), Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze (Fragrant Screw Pine/Kewda), Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty (Vetiver), Santalum album L. (sandalwood), Mentha × piperita L. (peppermint). Kapha dosha- Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ginger/ shunthi), Juniperus communis L. (juniper/ hapusha), Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl (camphor), Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (basil/tulsi), Piper cubeba L.f. (cubeb or tailed pepper/kankola), Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Jatiphala) Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag/Vacha) [11, 18].
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Abstract
Plants are an important source of many products and play a significant role in the human lifestyle all over the world. Plants produce secondary metabolites in which essential oil is one of the important chemical constituents. It has a unique aromatic smell and is used in different industries for various biological activities. In Ayurveda, essential oil is used in aromatherapy which is an ancient therapeutic knowledge or practice for healing the health of humankind. Thus, this paper focuses on all important aspects such as essential oils and their applications, taxonomic details of essential oil-bearing plant species, IUCN status, chemical composition, and therapeutic significance.
Abstract Keywords
Essential oil, aromatic plants, IUCN, Ayurveda, aromatherapy
This work is licensed under the
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4.0
License (CC BY-NC 4.0).
Editor-in-Chief
This work is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
License.(CC BY-NC 4.0).