Review Article
Received: 2026-05-21 | Revised:2026-06-04 | Accepted: 2026-06-10 | Published: 2026-06-23
Pages: 71-187
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58985/jeopc.2026.v04i02.83
Abstract
Essential oils extracted from the Asteraceae family, one of the largest families of angiosperms, have shown numerous biological properties and are widely used in the pharmaceutical, perfumery, agricultural, and food industries. The biological properties of these natural agents are directly related to their chemical composition. Therefore, the present review aims to investigate the chemical components of essential oils from the Asteraceae family and introduce their major compounds. The Asteraceae family, essential oils, chemical components, and major compounds were used as keywords in the searches. Terpene and phenylpropanoid compounds were identified as the dominant compounds in most of the essential oils. For instance, the major components of Artemisia annua L. essential oil are artemisia ketone, 1,8-cineole, and camphor. (Z)-β-ocimene was identified in all specimens of Tagetes minuta L. essential oils. Agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was used for the essential oils that had been studied extensively. For example, in the Artemisia absinthium L. essential oil, three different chemotypes, sabinyl acetate, β-thujone-rich cluster, and 6,7-epoxyocimene, were identified. In some cases, diverse chemotypes from different locations have been introduced. For example, the chemotypes of Achillea millefolium L. are not restricted to geographical locations and the largest cluster (the β-pinene cluster) has representatives from India, Iran, Brazil, Sardinia, Lithuania, Cuba, and Portugal. Likewise, essential oils from Iran represent all five different chemotypes. The results of this review can be used to make decisions about the use of Asteraceae essential oils.
Keywords
Compositae, chemical profile, essential oils, terpenes.
1. Introduction |
The Asteraceae family is known as the largest family of flowering plants, comprises approximately 23,000 species across 1,500 genera. Most members of this family are herbaceous or shrubby and can be annual, biennial, or perennial. Their stems may be erect, ascending, or prostrate, and their root systems exhibit significant variability, including taproots, fibrous roots, rhizomes, or stolons. Leaf morphology also varies widely, with some species having only basal or cauline leaves, while others possess both types. Leaf forms can range from simple and unlobed to lobed or compound. The inflorescence, known as a capitulum, contains a few to many florets surrounded by bracts called phyllaries, which form the involucre. The flower heads may feature ray florets that are zygomorphic, often with erose or lobed tips, in addition to disc florets that are actinomorphic, short-tubular, and typically four- or five-lobed. The fruits produced by the Asteraceae family are called cypselae; these are dry, single-seeded fruits that develop from bicarpellate inferior ovaries [1, 2].
The aromatic properties of several Asteraceae species are primarily due to the volatile constituents of their essential oils. In general, essential oils play a critical role in protecting plants against herbivores, particularly insects, mites, and nematodes, although other effects, such as the attraction of pollinators or phytotoxic activity against damaging weeds, have also been documented [3]. The diverse biological effects of many Asteraceae essential oils have been demonstrated in previous studies. These essential oils are an important source of insecticidal agents, and their high potential for controlling many insect pests from various groups, including crop, greenhouse, stored-product, and orchard pests, and medically important ones, has been well documented [4–10]. In addition, the acaricidal, nematicidal, antifungal, antibacterial, antiprotozoal, antiviral, antioxidant, cytotoxic, and phytotoxic effects of these natural agents have been documented, which are related to the chemical profiles of essential oils [11–25].
The chemical composition of essential oils isolated from the Asteraceae family, which mainly comprises terpenes, phenylpropanes, and other low molecular weight aromatic and aliphatic constituents, has been extensively studied in numerous species worldwide. It has also been reported that the chemical profile of Asteraceae essential oils can vary in response to various endogenous and exogenous factors, including geographical location, harvesting season, plant ontogeny (growth stage), chemotype or subspecies, the specific plant part used, and even the extraction method [26–32].
Accordingly, this review comprehensively focuses on the significant findings regarding the chemical profiles of essential oils from the Asteraceae family. Agglomerative
hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was conducted using XLSTAT v. 2018.1.1.62926 (Addinsoft, Paris, France). The analysis employed the percentages of the main components of each essential oil, with clustering determined by Euclidean distance and agglomeration defined by Ward’s method.
Essential oils are generally obtained by three different methods: (1) cold pressing (now used almost exclusively for the production of Citrus peel essential oils), (2) steam distillation or hydrodistillation (the most frequently used method for obtaining essential oils), and (3) dry distillation, which is rarely used Volatile components of plants have also been obtained by non-polar solvent extraction (e.g., hexane), or by supercritical CO2 extraction, however, the oils obtained are not considered “essential oils”. In this review, unless otherwise indicated, essential oils were obtained by steam distillation or hydrodistillation.
2. Materials and methods |
The complete list of Asteraceae genera was obtained from World Flora Online [33]. Each genus, coupled with the search terms ‘’Asteraceae’’, “essential oil”, or “chemical composition” was searched using the databases GoogleScholar, Scopus, and Web of Science. The search was conducted until April, 2025. Reports based on solvent extracts or those with unreliable gas chromatographic analyses were excluded.
3. Results and discussion |
3.1. Chemical composition of essential oils
3.1.1. Acanthospermum Schrank
The genus is primarily Neotropical comprised of six species: Acanthospermum australe (Loefl.) Kuntze, Acanthospermum consobrinum S.F. Blake, Acanthospermum glabratum (DC.) Wild, Acanthospermum hispidum DC., Acanthospermum humile DC., and Acanthospermum microcarpum B.L. Rob. Of these, A. hispidum has been naturalized in many areas of the world [33].
Acanthospermum hispidum DC. This plant is native to Central and South America, but has been naturalized in Eurasia, Africa, and North America [34, 35]. The essential oil compositions of A. hispidum have been reported from Argentina, Congo, Ivory Coast, and Nigeria (Table 1) and are largely dominated by sesquiterpenoids, especially (E)-β-caryophyllene.
Table 1. Chemical compositions of Acanthospermum hispidum essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Argentina | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (35.2%), α-bisabolol (11.4%), germacrene D (11.1%), trans-β-elemene (10.0%), α-humulene (9.7%), bicyclogermacrene (9.7%) | [36] |
Congo | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (34.0-42.7%), α-humulene (1.4-12.7%), germacrene D (6.4-10.1%), bicyclogermacrene (5.3-10.6%), α-bisabolol (3.7-11.2%) | [37] |
Ivory Coast | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (33.3-34.9%), germacrene D (7.3-8.4%), bicyclogermacrene (6.3-9.5%), α-bisabolol (6.5-9.9%), α-humulene (6.5-7.0%), α-pinene (4.6-7.9%) | [38] |
Nigeria | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (28.0%), α-pinene (15.9%), bicyclogermacrene (11.0%), α-bisabolol (8.9%), germacrene D (6.9%), α-humulene (6.0%), | [39] |
Nigeria | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (21.8%), α-bisabolol (20.7%), bicyclogermacrene (7.9%), caryophyllene oxide (6.6%), germacrene D (6.1%), α-humulene (5.9%) | [40] |
3.1.2. Achillea L.
The essential oil composition of Achillea species was reviewed in 2005 [41] and 2016 (from Türkiye) [42]. The following summary complements these previous reviews.
Achillea filipendulina Lam. Several studies have been reported on the essential oil composition of A. filipendulina (Table 2). Santolina alcohol, 1,8-cineole, and borneol generally dominate the aerial part essential oils, while the floral and leaf essential oils have shown some variation.
Table 2. Chemical compositions of Achillea filipendulina essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Iran | Aerial parts | Santolina alcohol (31.4%)a, carvacrol (14.9%), borneol (11.6%), 1,8-cineole (8.1%), bornyl acetate (5.1%) | [43] |
Iran | Aerial parts | Santolina alcohol (17.9%), 1,8-cineole (7.5%), borneol (5.5%) | [44] |
Iran | Aerial parts | Santolina alcohol (37.2%), borneol (12.7%), 1,8-cineole (8.6%), germacrene D (6.2%) | [45] |
Iran | Flowers | Ascaridole (30.2%), trans-isoascaridole (25.0%), 1,8-cineole (12.4%), p-cymene (9.5%), camphor (6.7%) | [46] |
Iran | Flowers | Chrysanthenyl acetate (19.1%), 1,8-cineole (17.2%), borneol (9.7%), α-pinene (9.6%), β-pinene (7.1%) | [47] |
Iran | Flowers | α-Terpineol (14.6%), chrysanthenyl acetate (13.7%), γ-terpinen (11.2%), bornyl acetate (10.0%), α-pinene (7.7%), α-campholenal (7.6%), | [48] |
Iran | Leaves | 1,8-Cineole (32.7%), camphor (17.7%), ascaridole (7.1%), trans-isoascaridole (6.6%) | [46] |
Iran | Leaves | Chrysanthenyl acetate (16.3%), 1,8-cineole (12.0%), α-pinene (8.8%), borneol (7.7%), bornyl acetate (7.2%), β-pinene (5.7%), cis-verbenol (5.7%), | [47] |
Iran | Leaves | 1,8-Cineole (29.9%), chrysanthenyl acetate (16.7%), bornyl acetate (14.0%), α-pinene (8.4%), terpinen-4-ol (5.7%), camphene (5.4%) | [48] |
Kazakhstan | Aerial parts | Santolina alcohol (29.0%), borneol (27.8%), 1,8-cineole (19.1%), bornyl acetate (8.1%) | [49] |
Tajikistan | Aerial parts | Santolina alcohol (46.3%, 43.6%), 1,8-cineole (8.8%, 11.4%), cis-chrysanthenyl acetate (6.5%, 9.3%), borneol (5.3%, 6.0%), iso-borneol (4.8%, 5.4%), | [50] |
Türkiye | Aerial parts | Santolina alcohol (43.8%), 1,8-cineole (14.5%), cis-chrysanthenyl acetate (12.5%) | [51] |
a Identified as 2,7-dimethyl-4(E),6-octadien-2-ol | |||
Achillea millefolium L. The essential oil compositions of A. millefolium have been extensively investigated from numerous geographical locations, including Brazil [52], Cuba [53], Egypt [54],Estonia [55], England [56], France [57], Greece [58, 59], India [60–62], Iran [63–71], Kaliningrad [72], Italy [73], Kashmir [74], Kazakhstan [75], Kosova [76], Lithuania [77], Macedonia [78], Poland [4, 79], Portugal [80, 81], Sardinia [80], Serbia [82, 83], and Türkiye [84].
A hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA, Fig. 1) indicates at least five different chemotypes of A. millefolium based on the essential oil compositions. Interestingly, chemotypes are not restricted to geographical locations. For example, the largest cluster (the β-pinene
cluster) has representatives from India, Iran, Brazil, Sardinia, Lithuania, Cuba, and Portugal. Likewise, essential oils from Iran represent all five different chemotypes. Some additional miscellaneous Achillea essential oils are summarized in Table 3.
Figure 1. Dendrogram obtained by hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) based on the essential oil compositions of Achillea millefolium.
Table 3. Chemical compositions of essential oils of miscellaneous Achillea species.
Achillea species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Achillea arabica Kotschy. | Türkiye | Leaves | Piperitone (31.1%), camphor (12.5%), 1,8-cineole (10.9%) | [85] |
Achillea arabica Kotschy. | Iran | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (14.6%), piperitone (13.1%), camphor (12.8%), 1,8-cineole (12.0%), germacrene D (9.7%), borneol (6.5%), linalool (6.1%), α-terpinene (5.4%) | [45] |
Achillea cartilaginea Ledeb. ex Rchb. | Kazakhstan | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (26.2%), β-thujone (11.8%), 1,8-cineole (8.8%), terpinen-4-ol (7.8%), camphor (6.8%) | [49] |
Achillea eriophora DC. | Iran | Leaves | Camphor (34.0%), 1,8-cineole (29.3%), camphene (5.9%) | [65] |
Achillea eriophora DC. | Iran | Aerial parts | Camphor (19.6%), 1,8-cineole (19.1%), camphene (9.6%), α-pinene (7.4%), borneol (6.7%), bornyl acetate (5.4%) | [45] |
Achillea fragrantissima Sch. Bip. | Yemen | Leaves | Artemisia ketone (49.5%), camphor (14.8%), α-bisabolol (11.2%) | [86] |
Achillea fragrantissima Sch. Bip. | Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (34.5%), santolina alcohol (25.6%), β-thujone (11.9%), artemisia ketone (9.9%), β-sesquiphellandrene (5.5%) | [87] |
Achillea grandiflora M. Bieb. | Kazakhstan | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (8.9%), selin-11-en-4α-ol (8.5%), γ-eudesnol (6.3%), 1,8-cineole (5.9%), | [75] |
Achillea ledebourii Heimerl | Kazakhstan | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (20.5%), spathulenol (10.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.5%), caryophyllene oxide (6.2%), unidentified (21.4%), unidentified (5.5%) | [49] |
Achillea lingulata Waldst. & Kit. | Bosnia and Herzegovina | Aerial parts | Borneol (30.1%), trans-verbenol (15.5%), 2-tridecanone (12.2%), fragranol (8.3%), myrtenol (7.9%) | [88] |
Achillea magnifica Heimerl ex Hub.-Mor. | Türkiye | Aerial parts | Linalool (27.5%), spathulenol (5.8%), terpinen-4-ol (5.5%) | [51] |
Achillea nobilis L. | Iran | Leaves | α-Thujone (54.0%), 1,8-cineole (12.8%), cadin-4-en-7-ol (6.7%), β-thujone (5.9%) | [65] |
Achillea nobilis L. | Iran | Flowers | α-Thujone (58.7%), 1,8-cineole (9.2%), β-thujone (6.0%) | [65] |
Achillea nobilis L. | Kazakhstan | Aerial parts | Camphor (17.0%), 1,8-cineole (15.6%), terpinen-4-ol (10.0%), borneol (7.2%), α-eudesmol (7.1%) | [75] |
Achillea sudetica Opiz | Kazakhstan | Aerial parts | Linalool (11.8%), bornyl acetate (8.9%), γ-eudesmol (6.9%), 1,8-cineole (5.9%), borneol (5.9%), unidentified (5.9%) | [49] |
Achillea tenuifolia Lam. | Türkiye | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (12.4%), camphor (7.1%), terpinen-4-ol (5.9%) | [51] |
3.1.3. Acmella Rich. ex Pers.
There are 30 species of Acmella currently recognized by the World Flora Online [33], but Acmella oleracea (L.) R.K. Jansen is the most important. The plant is believed to have derived from central Peru, but is known only from cultivation [89] and is now cultivated worldwide, including in Bolivia, Brazil, the Caribbean, China, Ecuador, India, Madagascar, Nepal, Peru, and Tanzania [90]. The essential oil compositions of A. oleracea are summarized in Table 4. The essential oils are generally characterized by sesquiterpenoids: (E)-β-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, and germacrene D, monoterpenes: β-pinene, myrcene, and β-phellandrene, as well as the fatty acid derivatives: spilanthol and acmellonate.
The major components in the essential oil from the aerial parts of Acmella radicans (Jacq.) R.K. Jansen collected in Kerala, India, were 2-tridecanone (30.1%), 1-pentadecene (25.2%) and (E)-β-caryophyllene (12.8%) [97]. The essential oil from Baoshan, Yunnan Province, China, on the other hand, showed 2-tridecanone (30.5%), caryophyllene oxide (19.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.7%), and a sesquiterpenoid identified as 4,8,11,11-tetramethylbicyclo [7.2.0]undec-3-en-5-ol (7.8%) (note: this structure is not found in the Dictionary of Natural Products [98], so the identification is doubtful) [99].
3.1.4. Ageratum L.
There are around 52 species of Ageratum in the Asteraceae, all of which are native to the Neotropics [33, 100]. Three species have been extensively studied in terms of their essential oils.
Ageratum conyzoides L. Although native to South America, this plant has been introduced throughout the tropics and is a noxious invasive weed in many locations. Nevertheless, it is an important ethnomedicine in many locations. There have been numerous reports on the chemical compositions and biological activities from several geographical locations, including Benin [101], Brazil [102–105], Cameroon [106–108], Congo [109], Fiji
Table 4. Chemical compositions of Acmella oleracea essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Castelfidardo, Italy | Flowers | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (20.8%), β-pinene (17.3%), myrcene (17.1%), caryophyllene oxide (10.0%), germacrene D (5.2%), β-phellandrene (5.1%) | [91] |
Umuarama, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (20.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.8%), caryophyllene oxide (6.4%), cis-β-santalol (5.8%), manoyl oxide (5.7%), epi-globulol (5.6%) | [92] |
Campos dos Goytacazes, Brazil | Aerial parts | Spilanthol (14.4-29.5%), phytol (15.3-27.1%), acmellonate (12.2-15.9%), 1-pentadecene (2.8-12.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (0.7-6.8%) | [93] |
Belém, Pará, Brazil | Flowers | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (27.1%), myrcene (25.0%), germacrene D (10.3%), β-pinene (10.0%) | [94] |
Belém, Pará, Brazil | Flowers | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (25.7%), germacrene D (14.8%), 1-pentadecene (11.4%), spilanthol (5.2%) | [95] |
Belém, Pará, Brazil | Leaves | Caryophyllene oxide (28.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (27.3%), germacrene D (17.9%) | [94] |
Castelfidardo, Italy | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (19.4%), myrcene (17.4%), β-pinene (14.7%), germacrene D (11.8%), caryophyllene oxide (10.0%), β-phellandrene (6.5%), (Z)-β-ocimene (6.0%) | [96] |
[110], Ghana [111], India [112, 113], Ivory Coast [114, 115], Nepal [116], Nigeria [117–119], Pakistan [120], Reunion [121], São Tomé e Príncipe [122], Thailand [123], and Vietnam [124, 125]. The essential oils of A. conyzoides are generally dominated by precocene I (6-demethoxyageratochromene), precocene II (ageratochromene), and (E)-β-caryophyllene. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) revealed three well-defined clusters, a precocene I/(E)-β-caryophyllene cluster, a precocene I cluster, and a precocene II/precocene I cluster (Fig. 2).
Ageratum fastigiatum (Gardner) R.M. King & H. Rob. Essential oils from A. fastigiatum were obtained from leaves, stems and inflorescences, of plants obtained in Minas Gerais, Brazil, in which essential oils were largely dominated by sesquiterpenoids (Table 5).
Figure 2. Dendrogram obtained by hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) based on the essential oil compositions of Ageratum conyzoides.
Ageratum houstonianum Mill. The essential oils of A. houstonianum are dominated by precocene I (6-demethoxyageratochromene), precocene II (ageratochromene), and (E)-β-caryophyllene (Table 6).
Table 5. Chemical compositions of Ageratum fastigiatum essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil | Aerial parts | 1,6-Humuladien-3-ol (17.7%), caryophyllene oxide (13.6%), humulene epoxide II (8.4%), α-pinene (7.5%), limonene (5.9%) | [126] |
Rio Paranaíba, Minas Gerais, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (42.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (13.3%), α-pinene (10.6%), α-humulene (9.5%) | [11] |
São João Del-Rei, Minas Gerais, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (20.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (19.6%), 1,10-di-epi-cubenol (15.4%), nonadecane (14.6%) | [127] |
São João Del-Rei, Minas Gerais, Brazil | Stems | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (34.9%), germacrene D (26.5%), α-humulene (9.6%), 1,10-di-epi-cubenol (5.9%) | [127] |
São João Del-Rei, Minas Gerais, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (24.2%), α-humulene (11.2%), β-cedrene (10.6%), α-pinene (9.5%), δ-cadinene (7.0%), α-muurolene (5.7%) | [128] |
Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil | Flowers | α-Pinene (41.2%), limonene (16.5%), germacrene D (8.23%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.8%), β-pinene (5.0%) | [129] |
Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil | Leaves | α-Pinene (51.3%), limonene (17.2%), germacrene D (9.1%) | [129] |
Table 6. Chemical compositions of Ageratum houstonianum essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India | Aerial parts | Precocene II (42.2%), precocene I (18.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (15.6%) | [130] |
Jammu region, India | Aerial parts | Precocene II (44.0%), precocene I (23.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (9.2%) | [131] |
Giza, Egypt | Flowers | Precocene I (34.6%), precocene II (29.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (13.6%), (E)-β-farnesene (10.2%) | [132] |
Giza, Egypt | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (63.9%), precocene I (22.4%), precocene II (10.9%) | [132] |
Palampur, India | Aerial parts | Precocene II (52.6%), precocene I (22.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (9.7%) | [133] |
Lishui City, Zhejiang Province, China | Aerial parts | Precocene II (62.7%), precocene I (13.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.9%) | [134] |
Bafoussam region, Cameroon | Leaves | Precocene I (32.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (27.5%), precocene II (24.0%) | [106] |
Dschang, Cameroon | Flowers | Precocene I (48.0%), precocene II (36.6%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.4%) | [12] |
Shobra El-Khema, Egypt | Aerial parts | Precocene II (48.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (20.8%), caryophyllene oxide (11.8%), (γ-cadinene (9.4%) | [135] |
Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India | Aerial parts | Precocene II (32.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (23.1%), precocene I (8.5%), (E)-β-farnesene (6.5%) | [5] |
3.1.5. Ainsliaea DC.
Essential oil compositions of Ainsliaea aptera DC. [136], Ainsliaea fragrans Champ. ex Benth. [137], and Ainsliaea pertyoides Franch. [138] have been reported. Essential oils from the aerial parts of A. aptera from two different sites in Uttarakhand state, India, showed the sesquiterpenoids germacrene D (14.6%, 3.2%), bicyclogermacrene (10.2%, 3.3%), δ-cadinene (4.2%, 6,9%), spathulenol (11.6%, 3.0%), τ-muurolol (7.6%, 10.8%) and α-cadinol (13.8%, 19.5%) to be the major components. Phenylpropanoids dominated the essential oil of A. fragrans aerial parts from Zhejiang Province, China, with myristicin (41.3%), elemicin (11.9%), and (Z)-isosafrole (11.5%), along with borneol (9.1%) and (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.8%). The major components of the essential oil from fresh aerial parts of A. pertyoides from Yunnan Province, China, were (E)-β-caryophyllene (24.5%), trans-β-elemene (16.3%), germacrene B (10.5%), α-guaiene (7.2%), and (E)-nerolidol (6.3%).
3.1.6. Artemisia L.
The essential oils of Artemisia have been reviewed [3, 18, 139, 140]. Therefore, this report summarizes the recent compositions of Artemisia essential oils.
Artemisia absinthium L. has been the subject of numerous essential oil investigations. Several reviews have been conducted on A. absinthium essential oils and their bioactivities [141–144]. A hierarchical cluster analysis of 190 accessions from the literature, based on the major essential oil components, reveals at least three different chemotypes (Fig. 3): (1) a cluster dominated by sabinyl acetate, (2) a β-thujone-rich cluster, and (3) a 6,7-epoxyocimene cluster, which is consistent with that previously reported by Chialva and co-workers [145].
Artemisia abyssinica Sch. Bip. ex A. Rich. The plant is native to Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia and Yemen [146]. The essential oils of A. abyssinica have been analyzed and reported in Ethiopia and Yemen (Table 7). The essential oils from Yemen are rich in camphor and davanone, whereas those from Ethiopia are dominated by yomogi alcohol and artemisyl acetate.
Artemisia annua L. The chemical compositions of A. annua essential oils has been extensively reviewed [151–154]. Essential oils are generally complex and variable in composition, depending on geographical location and growing conditions. However, the major components are often artemisia ketone, 1,8-cineole, and camphor (Fig. 4). For
Figure 3. Dendrogram obtained by hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) based on the essential oil compositions of 190 accessions of Artemisia absinthium.
Table 7. Chemical compositions of Artemisia abyssinica essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Sana’a, Yemen | Aerial parts | Davanone (42.3%), camphor (22.9%), (E)-nerolidol (9.0%) | [147] |
Alhodiadah, Yemen | Aerial parts | Camphor (42.5%), davanone (32.3%), cis-sabinene hydrate (5.8%) | [148] |
Sana’a, Yemen | Aerial parts | Camphor (42.1%), davanone (34.5%) | [148] |
Taiz, Yemen | Aerial parts | Davanone (49.4%), camphor (29.6%), (E)-nerolidol (5.1%) | [148] |
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia | Aerial parts | Yomogi alcohol (32.2%), artemisyl acetate (26.7%), nonanone (6.4%) | [149] |
Inchini, Ethiopia | Leaves | Yomogi alcohol (38.5%), artemisyl acetate (24.9%), artemisia alcohol (6.7%) | [150] |
example, the major components in the floral essential oil of A. annua from Rasht, Iran, were camphor (13,1%), artemisia ketone (11.8%), β-selinene (10.7%), pinocarvone (7.4%), 1,8-cineole (6.8%), α-pinene (5.9%), and caryophyllene oxide (5.4%) [155], while the essential oil from the aerial parts growing in Tajikistan were rich in camphor (32.5-58.9%), 1,8-cineole (13.7-17.8%), and camphene (4.5-8.4%) [156]. In contrast, the essential oil from the aerial parts of Belgrade, Serbia, was dominated by pinocarvone (29.4%) and artemisia ketone (19.2%) [157].
Artemisia arborescens L. The natural range of A. arborescens is along the Mediterranean coastal strips of Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Türkiye, as well as along the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic coasts, 0-1000 m asl [158]. At least four chemotypes of A. arborescens have been identified based on their essential oil compositions (Table 8): chamazulene β-thujone camphor/chamzulene and β-thujone/chamazulene types [159, 160]. A notable exception is the essential oil sample from Yemen, which was dominated by artemisia ketone (51.1%) [147].
Artemisia campestris L. This plant has a broad natural range in the northern hemisphere, including North Africa, temperate Asia, Europe, and North America [33, 179]. It is a complex species, composed of many races, and its taxonomy is still unclear. The essential oils of A. campestris have exhibited several chemotypes, that are generally correlated with geographical location, environmental conditions, or subspecies (Table 9) [180–182].
Artemisia capillaris Thunb. The plant is native to Assam, China North-Central, China South-Central, China Southeast, Hainan, Inner Mongolia, Irkutsk, Japan, Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Nansei-shoto, Pakistan, Primorye, Qinghai, Tibet, West Himalaya, Xinjiang, and has been introduced into Afghanistan, Borneo, Cambodia, India, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, Malaya, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sulawesi, Sumatera, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam [206]. The major essential oil components of A. capillaris are summarized in Table 10.
Artemisia dracunculus L. The essential oil chemistry of A. dracunculus has been recently reviewed [26,213]. Commercially important French tarragon essential oil is rich in estragol (69.0-84.0%) [214]. The essential oil compositions of A. dracunculus are highly variable and several chemotypes have been described [213, 215], including ocimene, α-terpinene, capillene, methyl eugenol, (Z)-artemidin, and estragole chemotypes, as well as a mixed (sabinene/elemicin/estragole/capillene/anethole) chemotype. The recent A. dracunculus essential oil compositions are summarized in Table 11.
Figure 4. Dendrogram obtained by hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) based on the essential oil compositions of 37 accessions of Artemisia annua.
Table 8. Chemical compositions of Artemisia arborescens essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Amizour, Algeria | Leaves | Chamazulene (31.4%), β-thujone (28.9%), β-eudesmol (8.4%), catalponol (5.7%) | [161] |
Cap Bouak, Algeria | Leaves | β-Thujone (59.8%) | [161] |
Sahel, Algeria | Leaves | Camphor (58.7%), β-thujone (12.0%) | [161] |
Algeria | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (30.2%), β-thujone (27.8%), β-eudesmol (8.1%), catalponol (5.5%) | [162] |
Sana’a, Yemen | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (51.1%), camphor (14.1%), α-bisabolol (12.6%) | [147] |
Southwestern Tunisia | Not indicated | Chamazulene (31.9%), camphor (25.8%), bornyl acetate (7.7%), terpinen-4-ol (5.1%) | [163] |
Messina, Italy | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (51.8%), camphor (14.8%), β-thujone (6.9%), myrcene (5.1%) | [164] |
Ras al Biyyada, Lebanon | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (68.5%), chamazulene (12.3%) | [165] |
Budva, Montenegro | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (38.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (15.6%), camphene (7.1%), camphor (6.4%), α-pinene (5.7%) | [157] |
Stari Ulcinj Island, Montenegro | Aerial parts | Camphor (39.5%), β-thujone (28.6%) | [157] |
Usellus, Sardinia | Aerial parts | Camphor (35.7%), β-thujone (24.0%), chamazulene (7.7%) | [166] |
Sicily, Italy | Leaves | β-Thujone (33.7%), chamazulene (26.6%), camphor (6.7%) | [167] |
Armenoi, Crete | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (59.3%), camphor (20.7%), β-thujone (6.2%) | [168] |
North-western Sicily | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (45.0%), chamazulene (22.7%), camphor (6.8%) | [169] |
Petru, Sicily | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (49.4%), β-thujone (20.5%) | [159] |
Diga, Sicily | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (49.5%), chamazulene (24.9%) | [159] |
Felice, Sicily | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (55.9%), chamazulene (15.2%), myrcene (5.1%) | [159] |
Arte, Sicily | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (44.0%), chamazulene (15.7%), myrcene (5.4%) | [159] |
Venti, Sicily | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (41.7%), chamazulene (18.5%), myrcene (6.8%) | [159] |
Marathon, Athens, Greece | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (28.6%), nonanal (10.0%), chamazulene (9.9%), myroxide (9.0%) | [170] |
La Maddalena, Sardinia | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (51.5%), β-thujone (38.0%) | [171] |
Ventimiglia, Italy | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (24.2%), camphor (18.9%), aromadendrene (6.5%), camphene (6.0%), 8-cedren-13-ol (5.2%) | [172] |
Sicily, Italy | Leaves | Chamazulene (37.6%), camphor (21.4%) | [173] |
Calabria Island, Italy | Leaves | Camphor (39.5%), chamazulene (27.1%) | [173] |
Lipari Island, Italy | Leaves | Chamazulene (34.6%), camphor (20.1%), β-thujone (6.6%) | [173] |
Ain Drahem, Tunisia | Leaves | Camphor (57.3%), chamazulene (14.0%), linalool (5.8%), terpinen-4-ol (5.3%) | [174] |
Oued Meliz, Tunisia | Leaves | Camphor (30.4%), chamazulene (15.3%), linalool (10.6%), trans-sabinene hydrate (7.1%), terpinen-4-ol (6.5%), bornyl acetate (5.0%) | [174] |
Fernana, Tunisia | Leaves | Camphor (38.9%), chamazulene (26.2%), terpinen-4-ol (9.6%), bornyl acetate (7.1%), linalool (5.3%) | [174] |
Jendouba, Tunisia | Leaves | Camphor (58.1%), chamazulene (18.5%), terpinen-4-ol (13.1%) | [174] |
Elkef, Tunisia | Leaves | Camphor (29.4%), chamazulene (17.1%), terpinen-4-ol (14.4%), linalool (7.3%) | [174] |
Beja, Tunisia | Leaves | Chamazulene (33.1%), camphor (25.7%), bornyl acetate (9.5%), terpinen-4-ol (6.9%) | [174] |
Thala, Tunisia | Leaves | Camphor (36.0%), chamazulene (29.8%) | [174] |
Kasserine, Tunisia | Leaves | Camphor (31.6%), chamazulene (16.5%), bornyl acetate (11.3%), germacrene D (7.1%) | [174] |
Gafsa, Tunisia | Leaves | Chamazulene (28.4%), camphor (24.0%), β-thujone (11.3%), bornyl acetate (8.0%), trans-sabinene hydrate (6.5%) | [174] |
Mateur, Tunisia | Leaves | Chamazulene (45.3%), camphor (36.3%), terpinen-4-ol (5.7%) | [174] |
Menzel Bourguiba, Tunisia | Leaves | β-Thujone (36.5%), chamazulene (17.2%), camphor (15.1%) | [174] |
Bizerte, Tunisia | Leaves | β-Thujone (35.0%), camphor (22.8%), chamazulene (20.7%), terpinen-4-ol (5.5%) | [174] |
Zaghouan, Tunisia | Leaves | Camphor (47.0%), chamazulene (11.7%), β-thujone (7.9%) | [174] |
Bouficha, Tunisia | Leaves | Camphor (28.5%), chamazulene (27.0%), bornyl acetate (16.0%) | [174] |
Cultivated, Tunisia | Leaves | Chamazulene (47.0%), camphor (24.9%), myrcene (5.5%) | [175] |
Capo Zafferano, Sicily | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (51.7%), β-thujone (13.5%), camphor (10.0%) | [160] |
Alimena, Sicily | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (55.4%), β-thujone (34.4%) | [160] |
Lami, Lipari Island, Italy | Aerial parts | Camphor (65.6%), chamazulene (14.9%) | [160] |
Acqua Calda, Lipari Island, Italy | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (63.0%), camphor (21.5%) | [160] |
Bechar, Algeria | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (27.0%), camphor (25.7%), chamazulene (13.8%), terpinen-4-ol (7.7%) | [176] |
Ain Sefra, Algeria | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (71.3%) | [176] |
Capo Zafferano, Sicily | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (43.1%), β-thujone (19.6%), camphor (8.8%) | [176] |
Termini Imerese, Sicily | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (36.8%), β-thujone (19.9%), camphor (8.7%) | [176] |
Chania, Crete | Aerial parts | Camphor (30.5%), β-thujone (18.4%), chamazulene (15.7%), iso-bornyl acetate (8.0%) | [177] |
Commercial (Anyang, Korea) | Not indicated | β-Thujone (43.7%), camphor (22.9%), myrcene (7.2%) | [6] |
Beni Snous, Algeria | Aerial parts | Camphor (72.2%) | [178] |
Bidar, Algeria | Aerial parts | Camphor (50.3%), myrcene (7.4%), terpinen-4-ol (6.1%_ | [178] |
Chetouane, Algeria | Aerial parts | Camphor (32.8%), terpinen-4-ol (8.9%), chamazulene (8.7%) | [178] |
Table 9. Chemical compositions of Artemisia campestris essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
A. campestris L. (subspecies not identified) | |||
Bengardane, Tunisia | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (49.8%), α-pinene (9.1%), limonene (8.4%), γ-terpinene (5.2%) | [183] |
Benikhdache, Tunisia | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (45.8%), α-pinene (12.5%), limonene (7.7%) | [183] |
Jerba, Tunisia | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (36.4%), α-pinene (9.7%), p-cymene (8.0%), limonene (5.8%) | [183] |
Tataouine, Tunisia | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (37.8%), α-pinene (10.4%), limonene (9.3%), γ-terpinene (5.5%) | [183] |
Beni-Khedache, Tunisia | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (34.2%), limonene (8.2%), germacrene D (7.3%), γ-terpinene (6.1%), myrcene (6.0%), α-pinene (5.3%) | [184] |
Lmarija, Morocco | Aerial parts | Camphor (19.0%), car-3-en-5-one (11.3%), thujone (6.6%, isomer not indicated), chrysanthenone (6.2%) | [185] |
Gafsa, Tunisia | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (33.0%), limonene (15.1%), α-pinene (12.3%), γ-terpinene (7.6%), myrcene (5.5%) | [186] |
Salah Bey, Algeria | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (15.2%), α-pinene (11.2%), myrcene (10.3%), germacrene D (9.0%), (Z)-β-ocimene (8.1%), γ-curcumene 6.4%) | [187] |
Djebel Amour, Algeria | Leaves | β-Pinene (25.6%), sabinene (17.0%), α-pinene (9.9%), limonene (6.6%) | [188] |
Boussaada, Algeria | Aerial parts | α-Terpinyl acetate (18.8%), α-pinene (18.4%), camphor (9.2%), camphene (7.7%), limonene (5.2%), borneol (5.2%) | [189] |
Vojvodina, Serbia | Aerial parts | Spathulenol (9.2%), β-pinene (9.1%) | [190] |
Tajerouine, Le Kef, Tunisia | Leaves | β-Pinene (35.0%), 1,8-cineole (14.4%), p-cymene (10.9%), α-pinene (8.1%) | [191] |
Djelfa Wilaya, Algeria | Aerial parts | (Z,E)-Farnesol (10.3%), cedrol (5.4%) | [192] |
Oued Moura, Algeria | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (18.7%), myrcene (17.3%), β-pinene (16.8%), germacrene D (10.3%), limonene (5.9%) | [193] |
Ćemovsko polje, Montenegro | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (24.2%), bicyclogermacrene (14.7%), γ-himachalene (12.6%), β-pinene (9.1%) | [157] |
Zintan, Libya | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (46.4%), α-pinene (6.8%), p-cymene (6.1%), limonene (5.4%) | [157] |
Hassi Bahbah, Djelfa, Algeria | Leaves | Camphor (42.0%), chrysanthenone (14.0%), 1,8-cineole (13.3%), β-thujone (7.0%) | [194] |
Near Tendrara, Morocco | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (17.3%), spathulenol (16.8%),β-pinene (15.6%), α-pinene (11.4%), α-campholenal (8.8%) | [195] |
Central Tunisia | Leaves | β-Pinene (32.0%), limonene (17.3%), α-pinene (11.4%), myrcene (6.0%), γ-terpinene (5.5%) | [196] |
Kasserine, Tunisia | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (11.6%), β-eudesmol (6.5%), α-pinene (5.9%), γ-terpinene (5.5%) | [197] |
North Tunisia | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (30.5%), β-pinene (16.8%), limonene (7.0%), β-eudesmol (6.6%), α-farnesene (5.0%) | [198] |
Tunisia | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (16.4%), β-pinene (16.3%), limonene (9.2%), p-cymene (6.6%) | [199] |
A. campestris subsp. campestris | |||
El Mergueb, Algeria | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (15.3%), limonene (6.6%), p-cymene (6.2%), germacrene D (6.2%), spathulenol (6.0%), α-pinene (5.4%), β-eudesmol (5.2%) | [200] |
Laghouat, Algeria | Aerial parts | Capillene (25.6%), α-pinene (9.1%), β-pinene (8.9%), p-cymene (8.1%), spathulenol (5.3%) | [182] |
Lithuania | Aerial parts | Caryophyllene oxide (8.4-38.8%), germacrene D (3.5-15.0%) | [180] |
Łodz, Poland | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (23.0%), β-pinene (13.9%), γ-humulene (7.5%), β-elemene (5.9%) | [201] |
A. campestris subsp. glutinosa (Gay ex Bess.) Batt. | |||
Laghouat, Algeria | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (26.9%), limonene (8.4%), γ-terpinene (5.0%) | [182] |
Djelfa, Algeria | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (32.8%%), limonene (9.2%), p-cymene (8.3%), α-pinene (7.5%), (γ-terpinene (5.4%) | [182] |
Figuig, Morocco | Aerial parts | Spathulenol (13.1%), β-pinene (11.9%), p-cymene (9.4%), α-pinene (7.3%) | [179] |
Camargue, southern France | Aerial parts | 1-Phenyl-2,4-pentadiyne (29.7%), capillene (22.3%), γ-terpinene (20.8%), methyl eugenol (6.6%) | [202] |
Tuzluca, Igdir, Türkiye | Leaves | Camphor (31.8%), 1,8-cineole (23.1%), α-thujone (16.8%), camphene (11.7%), | [203] |
Tamanrasset, Algeria | Aerial parts | β-Pinene 28.9%), p-cymene (13.4%), α-pinene (8.8%) | [204] |
A. campestris subsp. maritima (DC.) Arcang. | |||
Figueira da Foz, Portugal | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (54.5%), cadin-4-en-7-ol (9.5%), (Z)-β-ocimene (6.0%) | [205] |
Table 10. Chemical compositions of Artemisia capillaris essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Milam Glacier, Uttarakhand, India | Leaves | Capillene (60.2%), γ-terpinene (11.1%) | [207] |
Jinan, Korea | Aerial parts | Capillene (32.7%, β-pinene (9.4%) | [208] |
Beijing, China | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (12.7%), germacrene D (8.4%), γ-terpinene (8.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.7%), 1,8-cineole (6.9%), (E)-β-farnesene (5.7%), (Z)-β-ocimene (5.3%) | [209] |
Uttarakhand, India | Aerial parts | Capillene (42.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (12.5%). Myrcene (9.2%), β-pinene (8.6%), p-cymene (6.8%), limonene (6.4%), (E)-β-ocimene (5.8%), γ-terpinene (5.3%) | [210] |
Jianguo, China | Aerial parts | Capillin (24.2%), β-pinene (12.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.2%) | [211] |
Jinan, Korea | Aerial parts | Acenaphthylene (37.9%), β-pinene (12.1%), 4-carene (10.6%), γ-curcumene (9.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.8%), germacrene D (5.9%) | [212] |
Table 11. Chemical compositions of Artemisia dracunculus essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Cultivated, Kashan, Iran | Aerial parts | Estragole (81.9%) | [216] |
Cultivated, Black Sea, Russia | Aerial parts | Estragole (79.3%), (Z)-β-ocimene (11.9%), (E)-β-ocimene (6.8%) | [217] |
Cultivated (?), Taounate, Mernissa, Morocco | Aerial parts | Estragole (69.2%), (E)-β-ocimene (9.1%), (Z)-β-ocimene (7.9%), limonene (5.7%) | [218] |
Cultivated, Iran | Aerial parts | Estragole (81.6-88.1%) | [219] |
Commercial essential oil, Iran | Not indicated | Estragole (75.0%), (Z)-β-ocimene (8.3%), (E)-β-ocimene (7.8%) | [220] |
Cultivated, Tehran, Iran | Aerial parts | Estragole (64.9%), (Z)-β-ocimene (10.6%), (E)-β-ocimene (10.2%), p-cymene (5.4%), | [221] |
Cultivated, Iasi, Romania | Aerial parts | (E)-Isoelemicin (38.9%), methyl eugenol (23.4%), terpinen-4-ol (6.5%), carvacrol (5.0%) | [222] |
Wild-growing, Kukteppa village, Ziddi, Varzob rebion, Tajikistan | Aerial parts | Sabinene (29.1%), estragole (24.6%), limonene (7.8%) | [213] |
Wild-growing, southwestern Idaho | Aerial parts | Terpinolene (20.0%), 5-phenyl-1,3-pentadiyne (191.2%), capillene (13.8%), (Z)-β-ocimene (11.1%), methyl eugenol (8.7%), β-phellandrene (5.8%) | [223] |
Artemisia herba-alba Asso. Artemisia herba-alba is a perennial shrub that naturally grows in the dry steppes of the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa [224, 225]. The essential oil compositions of A. herba alba prior to 2017 have been summarized in previous studies [18, 139, 140, 226]. Recent reports on the essential oil compositions of A. herba alba are summarized in Table 12. Several chemotypes have been described based on the essential oil compositions, including α-thujone, β-thujone, camphor, davanone, chrysanthenone, pinocarvone, and 1,8-cineole [227, 228]. Based on the data in Table 12, there may be
several additional chemotypes (e.g., β-copaene, 2,6-dimethyl-1,3,5-heptatriene, chrysanthenyl acetate, and α-thujene).
Artemisia maritima L. Artemisia maritima is a perennial shrub, that grows to about 1 m tall, with a limited range. This plant has been reported in the cold desert regions of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwestern India, including Kashmir, Kurram, and Kishtwar [262, 263]. 1,8-Cineole, camphor, or chrysanthenone are the dominant volatile components (Table 13).
Artemisia monosperma Delile. The native range of A. monosperma is to North Africa (Libya, Egypt), eastern Mediterranean (Lebanon, Syria, Palestine), and the Arabian Peninsula (Gulf States, Kuwait, Oman, and Saudi Arabia) [33]. There are wide variations in the chemical compositions of the essential oils of A. monosperma (Table 14).
Artemisia nilagirica (C.B. Clarke) Pamp. Artemisia nilagirica is native to tropical Asia, including the Indian subcontinent, western Himalayas, and Indo-China [33]. The essential oils showed a wide variation in composition (Table 15).
Artemisia rutifolia Steph. ex Spreng. This plant has been reported in China, Mongolia, Middle Asia, and the Himalayas [33]. There are only a few reports on the essential oil compositions, but there are at least three different chemotypes (Table 16).
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. The natural range of A. scoparia includes Europe, Asia, and the Middle East including Afghanistan, China, India, Japan, Korea, Pakistan, Russia, and Thailand; central and southwestern Asia; eastern, central, and southern Europe [33, 290]. There is a wide variation in the reported essential oil compositions of A. scoparia and there are likely numerous chemotypes of this species [291]. The recent chemical compositions of A. scoparia are listed in Table 17.
Table 12. Chemical compositions of Artemisia herba alba essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Djelfa, Algeria | Aerial parts | Davanone (48.8%), chrysanthenone (16.0%), camphor (14.8%), 1,8-cineole (5.7%) | [229] |
Djelfa, Algeria | Leaves | Camphor (22.4%), 1,8-cineole (12.0%), α-thujone (8.2%), chrysanthenone (7.3%), β-thujone (5.4%) | [230] |
Amskrod, Morocco | Aerial parts | Chrysanthenone (56.8%), β-thujone (31.1%) | [231] |
Boulemane, Morocco | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (29.0%), β-thujone (28.6%), chrysanthenone (14.8%), 1,8-cineole (11.7%) | [232] |
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | Piperitone (44.6%), ethyl (E)-cinnamate (14.7%) | [226] |
Souk-Ahras, Algeria | Aerial parts | β-Copaene (16.2%), limonene (14.6%), 1,8-cineole (14.5%), camphor (13.7%), borneol (5.4%) | [233] |
Azzemour, Morocco | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (25.5%), β-thujone (17.7%), vanillyl alcohol (11.5%), nor-davanone (7.8%), cis-threo-davanafuran (5.8%) | [234] |
Taroudant, Morocco | Aerial parts | Chrysanthenone (39.7%), camphor (13.3%), α-thujone (12.9%), β-thujone (11.5%) | [229] |
Guelmim, Morocco | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (28.9%), borneol (22.3%), pulegone (14.4%), | [235] |
Bejaia, Algeria | Aerial parts | Camphor (32.0%), α-thujone (13.7%), 1,8-cineole (9.8%), β-thujone (5.0%) | [236] |
Ain Aghbal, Morocco | Aerial parts | Camphor (49.8%), (3E)-2,6-dimethyl-1,3,5-heptatriene (18.3%), α-thujone (13.5%), camphene (6.1%) | [227] |
Tizi Lafaka, Morocco | Aerial parts | Camphor (53.7%), (3E)-2,6-dimethyl-1,3,5-heptatriene (12.0%), α-thujone (7.7%), camphene (6.1%), 1,8-cineole (5.8%), β-thujone (5.1%) | [227] |
Lakhtatba, Morocco | Aerial parts | Camphor (58.8%), borneol (9.9%), (3E)-2,6-dimethyl-1,3,5-heptatriene (9.6%), camphene (6.4%), 1,8-cineole (5.2%), | [227] |
Talezzarte, Morocco | Aerial parts | Camphor (59.8%), α-thujone (7.8%), camphene (7.0%), 1,8-cineole (5.2%) | [227] |
Bni Boufrah, Morocco | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (47.4%), camphor (10.1%), β-thujone (8.9%), borneol (5.2%) | [227] |
Boudnib, Morocco | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (75.4%), β-thujone (10.5%) | [227] |
Ighrem, Morocco | Aerial parts | Camphor (32.6%), davanone (12.3%), 1,8-cineole (8.8%), davana ether (6.4%), α-thujone (5.1%) | [227] |
Tata, Morocco | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (49.7%), camphor (30.7%), β-thujone (8.2%) | [227] |
Es-Smara, Morocco | Aerial parts | Davanone (41.4%), camphor (12.9%), 1,8-cineole (7.2%) | [227] |
Tlemcen, Algeria | Aerial parts | Camphor (32.3%), chrysanthenone (25.6%), camphene (10.3%), 1,8-cineole (8.4%) | [237] |
Bouilef, Algeria | Aerial parts | Camphor (50.5%), α-thujone (12.7%), β-thujone (10.0%), chrysanthenone (8.2%), 1,8-cineole (8.2%) | [238] |
Er-rich, Morocco | Aerial parts | Camphor (14.7%), chrysanthenone (14.1%), β-thujone (12.6%), α-thujone (9.2%), α-pinene (6.1%) | [239] |
Thala, Tunisia | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (23.9%), chrysanthenone (17.4%), α-thujone (10.3%), 1,8-cineole (9.8%), p-cymene (8.3%), terpinen-4-ol (5.2%) | [240] |
Jerada, Morocco | Aerial parts | (3E)-2,6-Dimethyl-1,3,5-heptatriene (36.4%), camphor (22.5%), thujonea (7.21%), 1,8-cineole (6.0%), (1,3-dimethyl-2-methylene-cyclopentyl)-methanolb (6.5%) | [241] |
Taourirt, Morocco | Aerial parts | Camphor (55.3%), 1,8-cineole (14.6%), camphene (10.0%) | [241] |
Karak, Jordan | Leaves | α-Pinene (17.2%), α-thujone (11.4%), 1,8-cineole (10.4%), sabinene (8.4%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.3%), β-pinene (6.2%), artemisia alcohol (5.2%), germacrene D (5.1%) | [242] |
Talsint, Morocco | Aerial parts | Davanone (38.3%), davana ether isomer 1 (9.9%), davana ether isomer 2 (8.3%), camphor (6.3%) | [243] |
Gueldaman, Morocco | Aerial parts | Camphor (46.6%), borneol (5.7%), 1,8-cineole (5.6%) | [244] |
Imizar-Azilal, Morocco | Aerial parts | Chrysanthenone (47.7%), cis-dihydro-β-terpineol (21.6%) | [245] |
Jelma, Tunisia | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (27.8%), camphor (22.7%), chrysanthenone (18.0%), α-thujone (13.6%) | [246] |
Al- Jabal Al-Akhder, Libya | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (63.1%), β-thujone (26.6%), camphor (5.8%) | [247] |
Taliouine, Morocco | Aerial parts | Camphor (55.4-57.4%), 1,8-cineole (8.3-8.4%). Camphene (6.9-8.8%), santolina alcohol (4.3-6.7%) | [248] |
Rabat, Morocco | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (65.0%), β-thujone (14.4%), camphor (6.0%) | [249] |
Guelma, Algeria | Aerial parts | Camphor (26.2%), chrysanthenone (12.4%), 1,8-cineole (8.0%), α-thujone (7.8%), β-thujone (7.8%) | [250] |
Fez-Boulemane, Morocco | Aerial parts | cis-Chrysanthenyl acetate (26.7-30.0%), β-thujone (12.9-23.2%), chrysanthenone (1.0-14.0%), 1,8-cineole (1.5-11.8%), trans-dihydro-β-terpineol (6.9-7.8%), α-thujone (3.1-5.4%) | [251] |
Djelfa, Algeria | Aerial parts | Camphor (37.5%), chrysanthenone (10.4%), 1,8-cineole (8.6%), α-thujone (7.0%), camphene (6.0%) | [252] |
Sidi Bel Abbess, Algeria | Aerial parts | Camphor (30.6%), (3E)-2,6-dimethyl-1,3,5-heptatriene (26.7%), safranal (7.0%) | [253] |
Agadir, Morocco | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (24.3%), camphor (22.2%), α-thujone (14.6%), 1,8-cineole (10.3%), camphene (7.6%) | [254] |
Boussâada, Algeria | Aerial parts | Chrysanthenone (24.1%), camphor (16.2%), α-thujone (12.8%), 1,8-cineole (5.6%) | [255] |
Taounate, Morocco | Aerial parts | Piperitone (85.7%) | [256] |
Bechar, Algeria | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (48.0%), β-thujone (13.4%), camphor (13.1%) | [257] |
Ouarzazate, Morocco | Flowers | β-Thujone (59.2%), camphor (18.4%), dehydrosabina ketone (10.0% | [258] |
Biskra, Algeria | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (51.2%), α-thujone (13.2%), camphor (8.8%), chrysanthenone (6.9%) | [259] |
Giza, Egypt | Aerial parts | α-Thujene (61.4%) | [260] |
Truel, Spain | Aerial parts | Camphor (29.8%), β-thujone (22.0%), 1,8-cineole (14.5%), α-thujone (10.8%) | [261] |
a Correct isomer was not indicated. b This structure is not found in the Dictionary of Natural Products [98], therefore, the identification is doubtful. | |||
Table 13. Chemical c compositions of Artemisia maritima essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Keylong, Himachal Pradesh, India | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (41.1%), bornyl acetate (18.1%), myrcene (9.6%), sabinene (6.4%) | [264] |
Western Himalayas, India | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (23.8-44.2%), chrysanthenone (0.8-38.1%) | [265] |
Jhelum, Uttarakhand, India | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (25.0%), chrysanthenone (23.6%), germacrene D (7.4%) | [266] |
Jhelum, Uttarakhand, India | Aerial parts | Chrysanthenone (25.7%), 1,8-cineole (23.6%), germacrene D (6.7%) | [267] |
Commercial sample, source not indicated | Not indicated | 1,8-Cineole (41.1%), camphor (20.3%) | [268] |
Keylong, Himachal Pradesh, India | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (23.2%), camphor (20.7%), borneol (13.7%), bornyl acetate (13.2%) | [269] |
Lahaul-Spiti, Hamachal Pradesh, India | Aerial parts | Camphor (44.4%), 1,8-cineole (27.3%), camphene (5.5%) | [263] |
Lahaul valley, Himachal Pradesh, India | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (38.9-49.9%), terpinen-4-ol (9.7-14.2%), bornyl acetate (8.0-13.5%), camphor (1.8-5.5%), myrcene (1.6-5.8%) | [270] |
Table 14. Chemical compositions of Artemisia monosperma essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Ghat region, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | 7-epi-trans-Sesquisabinene hydrate (8.3-25.1%), dehydroaromadendrene (0.9-13.5%), junipene (3.5-6.3%), α-bulnesene (3.2-5.9%), 6-epi-shyobunol (1.9-10.4%), dehydrocyclolongifolene oxide (0.4-6.6%) | [271] |
Thumamah, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | 7-epi-trans-Sesquisabinene hydrate (6.1-20.4%), dehydroaromadendrene (9.5-15.0%), junipene (4.5-13.1%), 6-epi-shyobunol (9.1-13.4%), dehydrocyclolongifolene oxide (4.1-9.0%) | [271] |
Giham, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | 7-epi-trans-Sesquisabinene hydrate (7.9-19.0%), dehydroaromadendrene (9.8-11.3%), junipene (4.5-8.8%), 6-epi-shyobunol (9.6-10.1%), dehydrocyclolongifolene oxide (6.8-8.3%) | [271] |
Matrouh, Egypt | Leaves | Capillene (36.9%), capillin (14.7%), γ-terpinene (12.5%), β-pinene (7.9%) | [272] |
South Sinai, Egypt | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (20.7%), spathulenol (8.8%), limonene (7.5%), shyobunone (7.1%), citronellyl isovalerate (6.6%) | [273] |
Al Qalibah, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | 2-Vinylnaphthalene (24.9%), β-eudesmol (15.4%), β-pinene (11.9%), limonene (8.8%) | [273] |
Tobruk Desert, Libya | Aerial parts | Bornyl acetate (8.0-31.0%), β-pinene (9.0-24.0%), sabinene (13.2-22.9%), (E)-β-ocimene (3.7-12.9%), (Z)-β-ocimene (5.3-11.0%), myrcene (4.6-7.0%), p-cymene (1.1-11.2%), limonene (3.0-5.3%), α-pinene (1.1-6.2%) | [274] |
Gabal Ataka, Suez Desert, Egypt | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (56.4%), δ-cadinene (18.4%), α-pinene (6.8%), limonene (5.4%) | [275] |
New Damietta, Egypt | Aerial parts | γ-Eudesmol (14.7%), widdrol (7.6%), biphenyl (6.6%), β-pinene (6.4%), ar-curcumene (5.7%), viridiflorol (5.6%), 2-vinylnaphthalene (5.2%) | [276] |
Ha'il region, Saudi Arabia | Leaves | β-Pinene (29.9%), terpinolene (8.6%), bornyl acetate (7.6%), (E)-β-ocimene (7.1%), limonene (5.7%), cis-sabinene hydrate (5.3%) | [277] |
Cairo, Egypt | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (31.7%), camphor (16.9%), α-bisabolol (11.6%), β-phellandrene (10.2%) | [278] |
Table 15. Chemical compositions of Artemisia nilagirica essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (62.6%) | [279] |
Milam glacier, Uttarakhand, India | Leaves | Artemisia ketone (55.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.5%), germacrene D (5.8%) | [280] |
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India | Aerial parts | Camphor (19.7%), caryophyllene oxide 13.9%), 1,8-cineole (9.2%), humulene epoxide II (7.3%), α-humulene (7.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.6%) | [281] |
Meghalaya, India | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (32.7%), artemisia alcohol (13.4%) | [282] |
Nilgris, Tamil Nadu, India | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (33.8%), germacrene D (9.3%), β-thujone (6.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.9%), caryophyllene oxide (6.2%) | [283] |
Pokhari-Nagnath, Uttarakhand, India | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (36.4%), β-thujone (9.4%), germacrene D (6.3%), terpinen-4-ol (6.3%), camphene (5.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.4%) | [284] |
Uttarakhand, India | Aerial parts | Linalool (16.3%), α-thujone (13.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.5%), germacrene D (7.1%), terpinen-4-ol (7.1%), | [210] |
Gorakhpur, India | Aerial parts | Camphor (22.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (16.7%), α-thujone (14.6%), sabinene (14.3%) | [285] |
Palampur, India | Aerial parts | Camphor (12.6%), artemisia ketone (10.2%), caryophyllene oxide (7.4%), 1,8-cineole (5.3%), borneol (5.3%) | [263] |
Table 16. Chemical compositions of Artemisia rutifolia essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Kharkhiraa Mountain, Mongolia | Aerial parts | Santolina triene (22.4%), myrcene (21.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.2%), caryophyllene oxide (5.8%), p-mentha-1(7),8-diene (5.3%) | [286] |
Buryatia, Russia | Aerial parts | Benzylacetone (35.0%), camphor (16.7%), 1,8-cineole (16.5%) | [287] |
Khonaobod, Tajikistan | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (47.3%), α-thujone (20.9%) | [288] |
Chormaghzak, Tajikistan | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (36.6%), β-thujone (36.1%), 1,8-cineole (11.7%) | [288] |
Altai Mountain, Mongolia | Aerial parts | Benzylacetone (33.1%), camphor (22.4%), 1,8-cineole (19.1%) | [289] |
Table 17. Chemical compositions of Artemisia scoparia essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | 2-Nonanone (55.0%), 2-undecanone (24.5%), 2-nonyl acetate (9.3%) | [292] |
Mashhad, Iran | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (21.0-25.8%), camphor (11.9-16.4%), 1,8-cineole (12.4-13.7%), myrcene (9.5-13.3%), α-pinene (6.6-8.0%) | [293] |
Khovd aimag, Mongolia | Aerial parts | Capillene (20.8%), methyl eugenol (11.9%), eugenol (10.9%), spathulenol (11.8%), eugenyl 2-methylbutanoate (7.7%), ar-curcumene (5.9%) | [294] |
Hawal Bagh, Uttarakhand, India | Aerial parts | Capillene (28.8%), β-pinene (12.6%), α-terpinolene (12.5%), limonene (11.8%) (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.5%), (E)-β-ocimene (8.1%) | [295] |
Niška Banja, Serbia | Aerial parts | Capillene (63.8%), 2,4-pentadiynylbenzene (10.0%) | [296] |
Various locations, Serbia | Aerial parts | Capillene (33.6-67.9%), 2,4-pentadiynylbenzene (9.8-24.7%), β-pinene (4.7-16.9%), (Z)-β-ocimene (4.6-8.5%) | [297] |
Various locations, Pakistan | Aerial parts | Capillene (9.6-31.8%), myrcene (6.8-21.5%), γ-terpinene (9.2-19.5%), p-cymene (3.2-14.6%), limonene (4.4-14.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (0.8-12.4%), methyl eugenol (0.2-12.7%), (Z)-β-ocimene (2.8-7.4%), 2,4-pentadiynylbenzene (0.4-6.1%), | [298] |
Grocka, Serbia | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (57.2%), β-thujone (34.5%) | [299] |
Tehran, Karaj, Iran | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (13.1-30.5%), 2,4-pentadiynylbenzene (7.9-22.0%), (Z)-β-ocimene (1.9-16.2%), bicyclogermacrene (7.9-10.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.0-7.5%) | [300] |
Chormaghzak, Yovon region, Tajikistan | Aerial parts | 2,4-Pentadiynylbenzene (34.2%), β-pinene (21.3%), methyl eugenol (5.5%), myrcene (5.2%), limonene (5.0%) | [291] |
Artemisia sieberi Besser. Artemisia sieberi grows naturally in Iran, Syria, Palestine, Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkey, and Central Asia [301]. The phytochemistry, including essential oil composition, and the antifungal activities of A. sieberi were reviewed in 2017 [302]. The predominant chemotypes were thujone, chrysanthenone, 1,8-cineole/camphor, and santolina alcohol, however, their compositions are subject to seasonal and geographical variations. Zare and co-workers examined the chemical compositions of 17 accessions from different geographical regions of Iran [303]. These workers identified five different chemotypes, namely thujane, davanone, menthane, bornane, and a chemotype based on irregular monoterpenoids. The recently published essential oil compositions are summarized in Table 18.
Table 18. Chemical compositions of Artemisia sieberi essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | Davanone (36.1%), camphor (24.1%), terpinen-4-ol (5.4%), (E)-nerolidol (5.0%) | [292] |
Hail, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | cis-Chrysanthenyl acetate (48.6%), davanone (10.3%), 1,8-cineole (6.8%), caryophyllene diepoxide (5.3%) | [304] |
Bandar Abbas, Iran | Fruits | Camphor (47.0%), 1,8-cineole (20.9%) | [305] |
Shabestar-Eeat, Iran | Aerial parts | Camphor (33.6%), 1,8-cineole (25.7%), camphene (15.7%), chrysanthenone (7.9%) | [306] |
Geno Mountain, Bandar Abbas, Iran | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (48.7%), camphor (32.7%) | [307] |
Ardabil, Iran | Leaves | Camphor (19.5%), β-thujone (17.4%), 1,8-cineole (16.3%), germacrene D (8.4%), terpinen-4-ol (5.1%) | [301] |
Commercial sample, Kashan, Iran | Not indicated | α-Thujone (38.2%), santolinyl acetate (23.8%), β-thujone (11.3%), camphor (6.3%) | [308] |
Arak, Iran | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (31.5%), camphor (12.3%), β-thujone (11.9%), 1,8-cineole (10.1%), camphene (8.7%) | [309] |
Qom, Iran | Aerial parts | Camphor (25.2%), 1,8-cineole (6.3%), α-terpineol (6.2%), sabinene (5.2%) | [310] |
Artemisia vulgaris L. The plant is native to Eurasia, but is now established in the eastern North America, Central America, and Colombia [33]. The volatile phytochemistry of A. vulgaris has been extensively reviewed [3, 18, 139, 140, 311–313]. Judzentiene and Budiene carried out an extensive study of A. vulgaris essential oils throughout Lithuania [314]. These workers were able, to define six chemotypes based on the compositions: I, a cis-chrysanthenyl chemotype; II, an artemisia ketone chemotype; III, a sabinene chemotype; IV, a 1,8-cineole chemotype; V, a sabinene/cis-chrysanthenyl acetate chemotype; and VI, a camphor chemotype. In addition, Haider and co-workers [315] examined A. vulgaris essential oils from various locations in Uttarakhand Himalaya, India, and identified three chemotypes: vulgarole, artemisia ketone, and thujone chemotypes. Recent reports on the essential oil compositions of A. vulgaris are summarized in Table 19. A perusal of Table 19 reveals at least one additional chemotype: germacrene D/(E)-β-caryophyllene. The essential oil compositions of several Artemisia species are summarized in Table 20.
3.1.7. Aster L.
Aster is a genus comprising approximately 250 species growing throughout the northern hemisphere [33]. Despite the large number of species in this genus, only a few have been analyzed for their essential oil composition (Table 21).
3.1.8. Baccharis L.
Baccharis is a large genus in the Asteraceae comprising around 480 species, native to the Americas, but several have been introduced to Africa, Asia, Australia, and Europe [33, 355]. Several Baccharis species have been investigated for their essential oils and the essential oil phytochemistry, including the biological activities, of Baccharis has been reviewed [356–360]. The essential oils of Baccharis dracunculifolia DC. (Table 22), Baccharis punctulata DC. (Table 23), and Baccharis trimera (Less.) DC. (syn. Baccharis genistelloides subsp. crispa (Spreng.) Joch. Müll.) (Table 24) have been extensively investigated. In addition, recent and complementary aspects of Baccharis essential oil compositions are presented in Table 25. It is obvious that there is much variation in the compositions both Baccharis species and within Baccharis species. Nevertheless, the data suggest opportunities for additional research into the biological activities and potential medicinal applications of essential oils from various Baccharis species.
Table 19. Chemical compositions of Artemisia vulgaris essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Zeytinburnu Medicinal Plants Garden, İstanbul, Türkiye | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (30.7-47.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.9-22.1%), 1,8-cineole (6.8-9.6%), β-thujone (6.3-9.1%), germacrene D (2.6-8.2%) | [316] |
Urumqi, China | Aerial parts | cis-Sabinol (15.2%), trans-sabinyl acetate (11.1%), 1,8-cineole (10.9%), trans-piperitol (8.4%), trans-sabinene hydrate (6.2%) | [317] |
Northwestern Lithuania | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (10.6-30.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (3.3-16.7%), 1,8-cineole (2.7-9.8%), caryophyllene oxide (4.1-9.3%), α-humulene (2.8-5.5%) | [318] |
Pauri region, Uttarakhand, India | Aerial parts | Camphor (10.8%), β-eudesmol (9.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.5%), borneol (6.5%), bornyl acetate (6.3%) | [319] |
Sao Luís, Maranhão, Brazil | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (37.5%), germacrene D (16.2%), α-humulene (13.7%), borneol (6.8%), caryophyllene oxide (5.7%) | [320] |
Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh, India | Leaves | 1,8-Cineole (16.8%), camphor (11.9%), isopulegol (9.4%), borneol (8.1%) | [321] |
Timisoara, Romania | Aerial parts | Terpinen-4-ol (18.2%), spathulenol (12.1%), τ-muurolol (11.8%), palmitic acid (11.2%), α-terpineol (10.0%), caryophyllene oxide (8.5%), cuminol (7.2%) | [220] |
Karaj, Iran | Aerial parts | Camphor (30.6-49.9%), 1,8-cineole (17.5-31.2%), camphene (6.1-10.9%) | [300] |
Hetauda Makwanpur, Nepal | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (30.5%), 1,8-cineole (12.4%), camphor (10.3%), β-thujone 7.1%) | [322] |
Manipur, India | Leaves | 1,8-Cineole (29.9%), sabinene (8.4%), borneol (8.2%), 2,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadien-4-ol (6.8%), 10-epi-γ-eudesmol (6.5%) | [323] |
Wuhan, China | Leaves | 1,8-cineole (46.5%), borneol (10.2%), piperitol (9.5%), α-cadinene (8.9%), camphor (6.2%), α-humulene (5.5%) | [324] |
Table 20. Chemical compositions of Artemisia essential oils.
Artemisia species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Artemisia anethoides Mattf. | Gansu province, China | Leaves | 1,8-Cineole (36.5%), 2-isopropyl-5-methyl-3-cyclohexen-1-one (10.4%), terpinen-4-ol (8.6%), o-cymene (6.2%), pinocarveol (5.1%) | [325] |
Artemisia aragonensis Lam. (syn. Artemisia herba alba Asso) | Morocco | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (29.0%), camphor (14.7%), octacosane (14.0%) | [7] |
Artemisia brachyloba Franch. | Shanxi province, China | Aerial parts | α-Terpineol (21.7%), davabibe (10.7%), 1,8-cineole (6.2%) | [326] |
Artemisia douglasiana Besser | Santa Barbara, California, USA | Leaves | Camphor (29.0%), artemisia ketone (26.1%), artemisia alcohol (13.2%), α-thujone (9.7%), 1,8-cineole (7.5%), hexanal (5.3%) | [327] |
Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Besser | Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal | Leaves | Chrysanthenone (29.0%), coumarin (18.3%), camphor (16.4%), verbenone (5.2%) | [322] |
Artemisia eriopoda Bunge. | Xiaolongmeng National Forest Park, China | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (21.6%), 1,8-cineole (14.2%), δ-elemene (8.0%), sabinene (7.8%) | [328] |
Artemisia frigida Willd. | Hohhot, Mongolia | Aerial parts | cis-p-Menth-2-en-1-ol (20.8%), 1,8-cineole (12.0%), borneol (10.2%), lavandulol (9.3%), camphor (6.9%), bicyclogermacrene (5.5%) | [329] |
Artemisia indica Willd. | Dhulikhel, Kavre, Nepal | Leaves | Ascaridole (15.4%), isoascaridole (9.9%), trans-p-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol (9.7%), trans-verbenol (8.4%), cis-p-mentha-1(7),8-dien-2-ol (6.0%), α-terpineol (5.6%), menthol (5.4%) | [322] |
Artemisia judaica L. | Sinai Peninsula, Egypt | Aerial parts | Piperitone (32.4%), camphor (20.6%), ethyl (E)-cinnamate (8.2%) | [330] |
Artemisia judaica L. | Gabal Ataka, Suez Desert, Egypt | Aerial parts | Piperitone (43.8%), artemisia ketone (38.9%) | [275] |
Artemisia khorassanica Podlech | Khorasane-Razavi, Iran | Leaves | 1,8-Cineole (17.7%), camphor (13.9%), davanone (12.2%), isogeraniol (5.7%) | [331] |
Artemisia lavandulifolia DC. | Changchun, China | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (33.7%), 3-hydroxy-3-methylvaleric acid (7.5%), γ-terpinene (7.0%), butyl acetate (5.1%) | [332] |
Artemisia leucotricha Krash. ex Ladygine | Khashkhorog, Ishkoshim District, Tajikistan | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (41.5%), 1,8-cineole (33.0%), camphor (18.3%) | [333] |
Artemisia lobelii All. | Zlatibor, Serbia | Aerial parts | Camphor (41.9%), 1,8-cineole (13.8%), syn-anti-anti-Helifolen-12-al A (10.2%), camphene (8.9%) | [157] |
Artemisia mongolica (Fisch. ex Besser) Fisch. ex Nakai | Beijing, China | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (13.8%), germacrene D (10.4%), camphor (8.6%), artemisia ketone (7.0%), calarene (5.6%) | [209] |
Artemisia mongolica (Fisch. ex Besser) Fisch. ex Nakai | Anshan City, China | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (39.9%), cis-verbenol (14.9%), terpinen-4-ol (7.2%), camphor (6.0%) | [334] |
Artemisia negrei A. Ouyahya | Atlas Mountains, Morocco | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (29.0%), 6-camphenol (14.7%), octacosane (14.0%), 1,8-cineole (5.6%) | [335] |
Artemisia negrei A. Ouyahya | Morocco | Aerial parts | Camphor (25.0%), borneol (13.2%), 1,8-cineole (10.9%), fenchone (10.2%), bisabolone oxide A (5.6%) | [7] |
Artemisia ordosica Krasch. | Kubuqi Desert, Inner Mongolia, China | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (17.8%), β-bisabolene (12.1%), spathulenol (10.6%), caryophyllene oxide (8.7%), (E)-phytol (5.6%), β-elemene (5.6%) | [336] |
Artemisia ordosica Krasch. | Kubuqi Desert, Inner Mongolia, China | Aerial parts | Spathulenol (9.9%), ar-curcumene (9.2%), α-bisbolol (6.5%), (E)-nerolidol (5.3%) | [337] |
Artemisia princeps Pamp. | South Korea | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (20.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (16.3%), limonene (12.6%), phenol (7.5%), naphthalene (5.5%), cis-sabinene hydrate (5.0%) | [338] |
Artemisia rupestris L. | Hebei, China | Aerial parts | α-Terpinyl acetate (37.2%), spathulenol (10.7%), α-terpineol (10.1%), linalool (7.6%) | [339] |
Artemisia rupestris L. | Karkaralisk, Kazakhstan | Aerial parts | Myrcene (9.5%), β-elemene (5.4%), decanoic acid (5.1%) | [340] |
Artemisia rupestris L. | Altay, China | Leaves | Longifolene (6.0%), tricyclene (5.1%) | [341] |
Artemisia santonicum L. | Erzurum region, Türkiye | Aerial parts | Camphor (18.2%), 1,8-cineole (7.5%), β-eudesmol (7.2%) | [342] |
Artemisia santonicum L. | Near Eskiköy, Türkiye | Aerial parts | Camphor (36.6%), 1,8-cineole (10.2%), α-thujone (10.1%) | [343] |
Artemisia spicigera K. Koch | Erzurum region, Türkiye | Aerial parts | Camphor (34.9%), 1,8-cineole (9.5%), borneol (5.1%) | [342] |
Artemisia spicigera K. Koch | Azarbayjane-Sharghi and Azarbayjane-Ghabi, Iran | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (9.1-47.2%), camphor (15.3-39.3%), α-thujone (2.6-21.2%), camphene (2.0-18.7%) | [344] |
Artemisia subdigitata Mattf. | Xiaolongmeng National Forest Park, China | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (12.3%), ar-curcumene (10.8%), β-pinene (7.4%), borneol (6.2%), eugenol (5.9%) | [345] |
Artemisia tridentata subsp. tridentata Nutt. | Swan Falls area, Snake River Canyon, Idaho, USA | Aerial parts | Yomogi alcohol (19.1%), camphor (11.7%), artemisia alcohol (7.8%), β-artemisyl acetate (7.8%), (Z)-tagetone (5.9%) | [346] |
Artemisia tridentata subsp. vaseyana (Rydb.) Beetle | Boise Foothills, Idaho, USA | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (23.6%), camphor (21.3%), 1,8-cineole (10.7%) | [347] |
Artemisia tridentata subsp. wyomingensis Beetle & A.L.Young | Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area, Idaho, USA | Aerial parts | Camphor (15.2%), artemiseole (7.5%), methyl santolinate (6.2%), santolina triene (5.9%), β-artemisyl acetate (5.2%) | [347] |
Artemisia vachanica Krasch. ex Poljakov | Khashkhorog, Ishkashim District, Tajikistan | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (52.0%), santolina triene (14.9%), linalool (5.6%) | [348] |
Table 21. Chemical compositions of Aster essential oils.
Aster species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Aster ageratoides Turcz. | Beijing, China | Aerial parts | α-Terpineol (10.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (10.3%), linalool (7.2%), limonene (6.9%), spathulenol (6.5%), bornyl acetate (5.8%), bicyclosesquiphellandrene (5.6%) | [349] |
Aster koraiensis Nakai | Pohang, Kyungbuk Province, Korea | Aerial parts | Caryophyllene oxide (8.4%), aristolene (7.1%), epi-globulol (5.6%) | [350] |
Aster ovatus Franch. & Sav.) Hand.-Mazz. | Yoro town, Gifu, Japan | Aerial parts | Bornyl acetate (13.0%), terpinolene (9.7%), bicyclosesquiphellandrene (9.5%), (E)-β-ocimene (9.1%), (Z)-β-ocimene (7.6%) | [351] |
Aster scaber Thunb. | Yangsang, Korea | Leaves | Myrcene (18.8%), β-phellandrene (10.6%), germacrene D (7.3%), limonene (5.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.3%) | [352] |
Aster spathulifolius Maxim. | Jeju Island, South Korea | Leaves | Germacrene D (35.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (15.9%), (E)-phytol (14.9%), caryophyllene oxide (6.0%), hexahydrofarnesylacetone (5.6%) | [353] |
Aster subulatus Michx. | Selçuk, İzmir, Türkiye | Aerial parts | Elemol (21.5%), β-eudesmol (6.3%), caryophyllene oxide (5.2%), α-eudesmol (5.0%) | [354] |
Aster tataricus L. f. | Pohang, Kyungbuk Province, Korea | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (14.1%), spathulenol (13.5%) | [350] |
Table 22. Chemical compositions of Baccharis dracunculifolia essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil | Leaves | Camphor (25.2%), 1,8-cineole (10.4%), myrcene (10.2%), verbenone (10.1%) | [361] |
Santa Helena, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | Bicyclogermacrene (14.2%), germacrene D (9.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.4%), (E)-nerolidol (8.0%), limonene (6.7%), δ-cadinene (5.5%), β-pinene (5.3%) | [19] |
Guaraniaçu, Brazil | Aerial parts | Spathulenol (27.4%), (E)-nerolidol (23.1%), heptacosane (6.0%), β-pinene (5.4%) | [362] |
Not indicated | Not indicated | β-Pinene (9.9%), limonene (9.6%), (E)-nerolidol (7.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.7%), spathulenol (6.7%), α-muurolene (6.7%), α-pinene (5.3%) | [363] |
Brasilia, Federal District, Brazil | Leaves | (E)-Nerolidol (28.2%), spathulenol (17.7%), β-copaen-4α-ol (8.3%) | [364] |
Estiva Gerbi, São Paulo, Brazil | Leaves | Limonene (19.4%), bicyclogermacrene (10.8%), β-pinene (9.6%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.4%), γ-gurjunene (6.2%), α-pinene (5.7%), α-cadinene (5.4%) | [364] |
Canelinha, Santa Catarina, Brazil | Leaves | Bicyclogermacrene (14.2%), (E)-nerolidol (14.0%), limonene (10.5%), β-pinene (9.7%), spathulenol (9.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.7%), γ-gurjunene (6.2%) | [364] |
Federal University of Technology, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | (E)-Nerolidol (17.6%), γ-elemene (15.1%), limonene (10.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (9.8%), β-pinene (9.6%), spathulenol (8.5%), germacrene D (8.2%) | [365] |
Franca, São Paulo State, Brazil | Leaves | (E)-Nerolidol (23.6%), germacrene D (21.5%), bicyclogermacrene (19.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.2%), spathulenol (6.0%) | [366] |
Estación Porvenir, Paysandú, Uruguay | Aerial parts (♀) | (E)-Nerolidol (17.3%), β-pinene (10.9%), limonene (8.9%), spathulenol (5.2%) | [367] |
Estación Porvenir, Paysandú, Uruguay | Aerial parts (♂) | (E)-Nerolidol (16.7%), β-pinene (10.5%), limonene (9.1%), spathulenol (5.5%) | [367] |
Las Brujas INIA Research Station, Canelones Province, Uruguay | Aerial parts | Spathulenol (13.8%), β-pinene (11.8%)viridiflorol (11.2%), limonene (8.2%), caryophyllene oxide (7.1%) | [368] |
Commercial, São Paulo, Brazil | Not indicated | Limonene (20.0%), (E)-nerolidol (13.0%), bicyclogermacrene (10.8%), β-pinene (9.6%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.4%), γ-gurjunene (6.2%), α-pinene (6.0%), α-cadinene (5.4%) | [369] |
Franca, São Paulo State, Brazil | Aerial parts | (E)-Nerolidol (33.5%), spathulenol (16.2%) | [370] |
Bento Gonçalves, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | Leaves | β-Pinene (18.0%), ledol (13.6%), spathulenol (13.4%), limonene (10.1%), germacra-1(10),5-dien-4β-ol (5.4%) | [371] |
Cerrado biome, Brazil | Leaves | (E)-Nerolidol (22.7-38.6%), spathulenol (7.7-23.5%), limonene (9.9-13.7%), β-pinene (5.3-12.9%), α-pinene (2.5-6.3%) | [372] |
Commercial (Harmonia Natural, Canelinha, Santa Catarina, Brazil) | Not indicated | Spathulenol (14.8%), β-pinene (11.4%), (E)-nerolidol (10.2%), limonene (9.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.5%), bicyclogermacrene (7.7%), iso-aromadendrene epoxide (6.3%), α-pinene (6.1%) | [8] |
Particular do Patrimônio Natural (RPPN) Butuquara, Brazil | Leaves | (E)-Nerolidol (8.9-21.7%), limonene (11.7-14.6%), β-pinene (8.9-16.2%), spathulenol (5.1-9.4%), bicyclogermacrene (3.5-8.1%) | [373] |
♀ = Female plant. ♂ = Male plant. | |||
Table 23. Chemical compositions of Baccharis punctulata essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Santa Helena, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves (♀) | Bicyclogermacrene (42.4%), germacrene D (21.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (14.1%) | [374] |
Santa Helena, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves (♂) | δ-Elemene (14.3%), germacrene D (11.3%), bicyclogermacrene (10.9%), (E)-β-farnesene (6.7%), β-elemene (6.1%) | [374] |
Campos Gerais, Ponta Grossa, Paraná | Aerial parts | α-Bisabolol (23.6%), limonene (11.4%), spathulenol (10.0%), β-pinene (5.0%) | [375] |
Roldán City, Argentina | Leaves | Alismol (18.9%), spathulenol (9.4%), caryophyllene oxide (5.2%) | [376] |
Luján, Buenos Aires State, Argentina | Leaves (♀) | Verboccidentafuran (16.3-47.5%), δ-elemene (4.8-16.4%), germacra-1(10),5-dien-4α-ol (7.0-10.6%), amorph-4,7(11)-dien (2.2-9.4%) | [377] |
Luján, Buenos Aires State, Argentina | Leaves (♂) | Verboccidentafuran (22.4-43.9%), δ-elemene (8.6-9.1%), germacra-1(10),5-dien-4α-ol (0.7-17.3%), amorph-4,7(11)-dien (2.3-7.5%) | [377] |
Luján, Buenos Aires State, Argentina | Leaves (♂) | Verboccidentafuran (5.2-49.0%), amorph-4-en-7-ol (2.2-22.8%), alismol (0.0-25.7%), germacra-1(10), 5-dien-4α-ol (2.2-18.9%) | [378] |
Estación Porvenir, Paysandú, Uruguay | Aerial parts | Germacra-1(10), 5-dien-4α-ol (7.0%), β-phellandrene (5.2%), bornyl acetate (5.2%) | [367] |
♀ = Female plant. ♂ = Male plant. | |||
Table 24. Chemical compositions of Baccharis trimera essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Paraná, Brazil | Cladodes | Carquejyl acetate (73.3-73.5%), ledol (6.0-7.7%) | [379] |
Santa Catarina, Brazil | Cladodes | Carquejyl acetate (65.1-66.7%), ledol (7.0-7.7%), carquejol (6.2-6.3%) | [379] |
Commercial, Laszlo Aromatology Company, Brazil | Leaves | β-Pinene (23.4%), carquejyl acetate (19.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.4%), limonene (5.9%), germacrene D (5.0%) | [380] |
Private Reserve of Natural Patrimony, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | Carquejyl acetate (28.2%), palustrol (11.5%), β-pinene (9.7%), viridiflorol (7.3%), β-eudesmol (6.4%), bicyclogermacrene (6.0%) | [381] |
Unicamp – Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (15.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (14.8%), bicyclogermacrene (14.7%), δ-cadinene (6.8%) | [382] |
Atlantic Forest near Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | Limonene (42.2%), carquejyl acetate (22.0%), palustrol (13.1%), β-eudesmol (6.1%) | [383] |
Campinas State University (UNICAMP), Paulínia-SP, Brazil | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (18.9%), bicyclogermacrene (15.6%), germacrene D (10.6%), δ-cadinene (6.7%), caryophyllene oxide (5.5%) | [384] |
Erechim, Rio Grande Do Sul, Brazil | Leaves | Carquejyl acetate (73.6%), palustrol (5.5%) | [385] |
Bento Gonçalves, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | Leaves | Carquejyl acetate (67.5%), α-thujene (6.2%) | [371] |
Various sites from northern Argentina and southern Brazil | Aerial parts | Carquejyl acetate (35.5-68.0%), ledol (5.9-24.2%), β-eudesmol (2.3-14.8%) | [386] |
Piraquara, Parana, Brasil | Leaves | Carquejyl acetate (52.7%), limonene (18.6%), palustrol (6.4%) | [387] |
Table 25. Chemical compositions of Baccharis essential oils.
Baccharis species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Baccharis albilanosa A.S. Oliveira & Deble | Grassland, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | Aerial Parts | Spathulenol (38.6%), caryophyllene oxide (14.0%) | [20] |
Baccharis anomala DC. | Atlantic Forest near Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | β-Pinene (18.3%), thujopsan-2α-ol (17.7%), limonene (13.0%), globulol (10.9%), spathulenol (8.0%), viridiflorol (7.2%), α-muurolol (6.3%), β-eudesmol (6.0%) | [383] |
Baccharis anomala DC. | Piraquara, Parana, Brasil | Leaves | Limonene (23.9%), germacrene D (19.7%), δ-cadinene (8.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.3%) | [387] |
Baccharis aracatubaensis Malag. | Morro do Canal, Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Inflorescenses | γ-Muurolene (21.4-23.9%), bicyclogermacrene (21.4-21.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (10.9-12.7%), δ-cadinene (6.6-8.2%), mint sulfide (3.2-6.9%) | [21] |
Baccharis articulata Pers. | BioEstação Gaia, Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (52.2%), limonene (17.4%), germacrene D (9.0%) | [388] |
Baccharis articulata Pers. | Los Cerrillos, Canelones, Uruguay | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (25.6%), spathulenol (12.9%), caryophyllene oxide (10.1%) | [367] |
Baccharis articulata Pers. | Erechim, Rio Grande Do Sul, Brazil | Leaves | β-Pinene (22.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (21.5%), bicyclogermacrene (17.6%), guaia-3,9-diene (10.5%), spathulenol (9.9%), neo-iso-longifolene (7.6%), germacrene D (6.8%) | [385] |
Baccharis articulata Pers. | Piraquara, Parana, Brasil | Leaves | Limonene (38.4%), β-pinene (30.2%) | [387] |
Baccharis axillaris DC. | Piraquara, Parana, Brasil | Leaves | α-Pinene (41.9%), limonene (31.9%), β-pinene (7.4%) | [387] |
Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera | Near La Paz, Bolivia | Leaves | Limonene (17.4-29.6%), α-pinene (11.9-14.7%), β-pinene (10.0-10.4%), p-cymene (8.6-10.4%), sabinene (7.2-11.9%), myrcene (4.6-5.8%) | [389] |
Baccharis burchellii Baker | Morro do Canal, Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Inflorescenses | Bicyclogermacrene (17.8-20.7%), γ-muurolene (7.3-10.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.9-11.8%), thujopsan-2α-ol (6.4-9.1%), β-eudesmol (0.4-12.3%) | [21] |
Baccharis calvescens DC. | Atlantic Forest near Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | Spathulenol (21.3%), limonene (20.6%), α-pinene (15.7%), thujopsan-2α-ol (13.2%), β-pinene (11.8%) | [383] |
Baccharis calvescens DC. | BioEstação Gaia, Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (25.1%), limonene (22.8%), α-pinene (15.6%), germacrene D (6.5%) | [388] |
Baccharis calvescens DC. | Piraquara, Parana, Brasil | Leaves | Limonene (39.5%), β-pinene (13.7%) | [387] |
Baccharis coridifolia DC. | Private Reserve of Natural Patrimony, Paraná, Brazil | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (23.7%), bicyclogermacrene (17.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.4%), (E)-β-ocimene (8.2%), spathulenol (8.1%), myrcene (6.7%), β-pinene (5.8%) | [390] |
Baccharis coridifolia DC. | Grassland, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | Aerial Parts | Spathulenol (25.1%), caryophyllene oxide (11.3%) | [20] |
Baccharis crispa Spreng. | Quebrada de los Quervos, Treinta y Tres, Uruguay | Aerial parts (♀) | Spathulenol (16.1%), globulol (15.0%), caryophyllene oxide (12.7%) | [367] |
Baccharis crispa Spreng. | Quebrada de los Quervos, Treinta y Tres, Uruguay | Aerial parts (♂) | Globulol (17.8%), spathulenol (16.4%), caryophyllene oxide (10.8%) | [367] |
Baccharis cultrata Baker | Quebrada de los Cuervos, Uruguay | Aerial parts | Sylvestrene (10.6%), terpinen-4-ol (10.1%), spathulenol (10.0%), β-pinene (7.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.7%), sabinene (5.1%) | [367] |
Baccharis densiflora Wedd. | Near La Paz, Bolivia | Leaves | Limonene (46.2%), α-pinene (16.4%), β-pinene (7.2%), (E)-β-ocimene (5.9%), myrcene (5.6%) | [389] |
Baccharis erigeroides DC. | Grassland, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | Aerial Parts | Spathulenol (19.7%), caryophyllene oxide (11.0%) | [20] |
Baccharis erioclada DC. | Campos Gerais, Ponta Grossa, Paraná, Brazil | Aerial parts | Dihydro-ar-turmerone (28.0%), fokienol (13.5%), ledol (9.8%), α-santalol (5.4%) | [391] |
Baccharis gaudichaudiana DC. | Prov. Misiones, Argentina | Aerial parts | Spathulenol (22.0-38.2%), β-pinene (25.1-31.0%), caryophyllene oxide (8.7-14.0%), limonene (4.6-7.2%) | [392] |
Baccharis genistifolia DC. | El Pinar, Canelones, Uruguay | Aerial parts | α-Muurolol (13.4%), himachalol (8.0%), α-cadinol (6.6%), γ-muurolene (5.9%) | [367] |
Baccharis gibertii Baker | El Pinar, Canelones, Uruguay | Aerial parts | Geranyl acetate (55.5%) | [367] |
Baccharis gnaphalioides Spreng. | El Pinar, Canelones, Uruguay | Aerial parts | α-Cadinol (13.8%), spathulenol (11.6%), ζ-muurolola (10.6%), δ-cadinene (5.7%) | [367] |
Baccharis halimifolia L. | Poitiers, France | Leaves | Caryophyllene oxide (37.5%), humulene epoxide II (8.1%) | [393] |
Baccharis heterophylla Kunth | Capulálpam de Méndez, Oaxaca, México | Aerial parts | Limonene (36.2%), myrcene (29.6%), β-pinene (28.9%), α-pinene (5.3%) | [394] |
Baccharis latifolia Pers. | Near La Paz, Bolivia | Leaves | α-Pinene (6.3-8.6%), α-thujene (6.2-8.0%), γ-cadinene (5.3-5.9%), β-pinene (4.3-5.2%), β-cadinene (1.3-10.2%), aromadendrene (0.0-12.1%) | [389] |
Baccharis linearifolia Pers. subsp. linearifolia | Quebrada de los Quervos, Treinta y Tres, Uruguay | Aerial parts (♀) | α-Pinene (18.0%), β-pinene (16.7%), benzyl salicylate (14.3%), myrcene (5.9%) | [367] |
Baccharis linearifolia Pers. subsp. linearifolia | Quebrada de los Quervos, Treinta y Tres, Uruguay | Aerial parts (♂) | α-Pinene (25.0%), β-pinene (21.6%), benzyl salicylate (9.3%), benzyl benzoate (6.9%) | [367] |
Baccharis mesoneura DC. | Atlantic Forest near Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | α-Pinene (72.6%), β-pinene (14.1%), limonene (13.3%) | [383] |
Baccharis mesoneura DC. | Piraquara, Parana, Brasil | Leaves | Limonene (32.2%), α-pinene (15.5%), α-thujene (14.4%), β-pinene (8.2%), sabinene (6.3%) | [387] |
Baccharis microcephala DC. | Prov. Misiones, Argentina | Aerial parts | Caryophyllene oxide (22.4%), spathulenol (17.4%), humulene epoxide II (12.4%), globulol (10.1%) | [392] |
Baccharis microdonta DC. | Campos Gerais, Ponta Grossa, Paraná, Brazil | Aerial parts | Spathulenol (22.7%), kongol (22.2%) | [375] |
Baccharis microdonta DC. | Las Brujas INIA Research Station, Canelones Province, Uruguay | Aerial parts | Spathulenol (17.3%), caryophyllene oxide (14.0%), limonene (9.6%), β-pinene (6.1%) | [368] |
Baccharis milleflora DC. | Atlantic Forest near Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | β-Pinene (67.5%), limonene (28.2%) | [383] |
Baccharis milleflora DC. | BioEstação Gaia, Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Aerial parts | Bicyclogermacrene (12.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (11.9%), germacrene D (10.1%), α-pinene (6.8%), β-phellandrene (5.9%), α-humulene (5.9%), myrcene (5.3%) | [388] |
Baccharis milleflora DC. | Piraquara, Parana, Brasil | Leaves | Viridiflorol (24.1%), limonene (22.6%) | [387] |
Baccharis myriocephala Baker | Piraquara, Parana, Brasil | Leaves | Limonene (41.9%), β-pinene (16.7%) | [387] |
Baccharis myriocephala Baker (syn. Baccharis genistelloides subsp. crispa (Spreng.) Joch. Müll) | Teresópolis, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil | Leaves | β-Copaene (36.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (13.8%), myrcene (7.2%) | [395] |
Baccharis napaea G. Heiden | Grassland, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | Aerial Parts | Spathulenol (28.5%), caryophyllene oxide (15.2%) | [20] |
Baccharis oblongifolia Pers. | Atlantic Forest near Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | α-Pinene (22.1%), α-thujene (20.2%), limonene (12.5%), β-pinene (10.8%), sabinene (9.9%), β-phellandrene (6.6%), terpinen-4-ol (5.5%) | [383] |
Baccharis oblongifolia Pers. | Piraquara, Parana, Brasil | Leaves | Limonene (32.7%), germacrene D (6.3%), β-pinene (5.0%) | [387] |
Baccharis ochracea Spreng. | Quebrada de los Cuervos, Treinta y Tres, Uruguay | Aerial parts | Spathulenol (30.8%), caryophyllene oxide (14.1%) | [367] |
Baccharis ochracea Spreng. | Grassland, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | Aerial Parts | Spathulenol (28.6%), caryophyllene oxide (12.7%) | [20] |
Baccharis odorata Spreng. | Cuzco, Peru | Aerial parts | δ-Cadinene (9.1%), β-pinene (8.8%), α-cadinol (8.1%), limonene (6.2%), τ-cadinol (5.5%) | [396] |
Baccharis oreophilla Malme | Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | Khusimone (16.4%), spathulenol (16.1%), δ-cadinol (5.7%) | [397] |
Baccharis organensis Baker | Morro do Canal, Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil | Inflorescenses | Viridiflorol (11.9-23.0%), bicyclogermacrene (15.1-15.2%), γ-muurolene (6.8-10.4%), curcuphenol (4.8-5.9%) | [21] |
Baccharis palustris Heering | Paso Carrasco region, Uruguay | Aerial parts | Baccharisdiyne (52.7%), (7Z)-dehydrobaccharisdiyne (14.4%), (E)-β-ocimene (8.3%), (Z)-lachnophyllum ester (5.3%) | [398] |
Baccharis papillosa Rusby | Near La Paz, Bolivia | Leaves | α-Pinene (20.4-23.6%), α-thujene (7.4-10.3%), β-pinene (5.4-5.9%), α-cubebene (0.8-12.5%), γ-amorphene (1.0-9.6%) | [389] |
Baccharis parvidentata Malag. | Pedra do Sino, Teresópolis, Brazil | Aerial parts | Sabinene (15.2%), β-pinene (9.2%), δ-3-carene (5.7%) | [399,400] |
Baccharis pauciflosculosa DC. | Campos Gerais, Ponta Grossa, Paraná | Aerial parts | Limonene (18.8%), β-pinene (18.3%), α-pinene (10.5%), spathulenol (9.5%) | [375] |
Baccharis penningtonii Heering | Prov. Entre Ríos, Argentina | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (29.3%) | [392] |
Baccharis phyteumoides DC. | Mendoza Chico, Florida, Uruguay | Aerial parts | Limonene (20.1%), spathulenol (7.8%) | [367] |
Baccharis phyteumoides DC. | Prov. Santa Fe, Argentina | Aerial parts | (E)-Phytyl acetate (16.2%), β-selinene (12.9%), limonene (8.7%), spathulenol (8.2%), caryophyllene oxide (5.7%) | [392] |
Baccharis pluricapitulata (Deble) G. Heiden | Grassland, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | Aerial Parts | Caryophyllene oxide (17.1%), spathulenol (7.5%) | [20] |
Baccharis psiadioides (Less.) Joch.Müll. | Morro Santana, Campos Sulinos rebion, Brazil | Leaves | β-Pinene (44.7%), δ-3-carene (13.5%), limonene (6.5%) | [22] |
Baccharis reticularia DC. | Restinga de Jurubatib a National Park, Brazil | Aerial parts | Limonene (14.6%), myrcene (12.6%), bicyclogermacrene (12.5%), (E)-β- caryophyllene (10.7%), β-eudesmol (10.4%), spathulenol (6.9%) | [401] |
Baccharis reticularioides Deble & A.S.Oliveira | Campos Gerais, Ponta Grossa, Paraná | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (24.5%), β-pinene (7.7%), α-phellandren-8-ol (5.6%), spathulenol (5.5%) | [375] |
Baccharis reticulata (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. | Private Reserve of Natural Patrimony, Paraná, Brazil | Aerial parts | Dillapiole (33.8%), α-pinene (31.7%), β-pinene (9.4%), limonene (7.0%) | [402] |
Baccharis semiserrata DC. | Ponta Grossa, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves (♀) | Spathulenol (42.7%), aromadendrene (9.6%), δ-cadinene (9.5%), α-muurolene (8.9%) | [403] |
Baccharis semiserrata DC. | Ponta Grossa, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves (♂) | Spathulenol (50.8%), α-eudesmol (5.5%) | [403] |
Baccharis sphenophylla Dusén ex Malme | Campos Gerais, Ponta Grossa, Paraná | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (15.2%), limonene (14.3%), spathulenol (13.2%), α-pinene (10.7%) | [375] |
Baccharis spicata (Lam.) Baill. | Roldán City, Argentina | Leaves | Caryophyllene oxide (31.9%), spathulenol (26.3%), β-pinene (14.6%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.4%) | [376] |
Baccharis spicata (Lam.) Baill. | Quebrada de los Quervos, Treinta y Tres, Uruguay | Aerial parts (♀) | β-Pinene (20.1%), spathulenol (18.9%), caryophyllene oxide (9.9%), limonene (8.5%) | [367] |
Baccharis spicata (Lam.) Baill. | Quebrada de los Quervos, Treinta y Tres, Uruguay | Aerial parts (♂) | Spathulenol (24.0%), caryophyllene oxide (9.6%), β-pinene (5.9%), limonene (5.1%) | [367] |
Baccharis spicata (Lam.) Baill. | Northeastern Argentina | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (7.1-26.0%), spathulenol (13.1-18.7%), caryophyllene oxide 3.6-15.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.7-8.3%), limonene (4.4-8.1%) | [392] |
Baccharis tola Phil. | Near La Paz, Bolivia | Leaves | α-Pinene (15.0-22.0%), β-pinene (18.4-21.9%) | [389] |
Baccharis tridentata Vahl | São Francisco de Paula, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | Aerial parts (♀) | α-Pinene (29.5%), β-pinene (17.9%), limonene (16.4%), bornyl acetate (10.1%) | [404] |
Baccharis tridentata Vahl | São Francisco de Paula, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | Aerial parts (♂) | α-Pinene (30.8%), β-pinene (17.0%), limonene (16.7%), bornyl acetate (9.1%) | [404] |
Baccharis uncinella DC. | Atlantic Forest near Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | Limonene (88.8%), β-pinene (7.6%) | [383] |
Baccharis uncinella DC. | Piraquara, Parana, Brasil | Leaves | Limonene (24.1%), spathulenol (17.2%), α-pinene (6.7%), caryophyllene oxide (6.3%) | [387] |
♀ = Female plant. ♂ = Male plant. a This name is not found in the Adams database [405], the Dictionary of Natural Products [98], or NIST website [406]. | ||||
3.1.9. Balsamorhiza Hook.
There are 15 species of Balsamorhiza, all of which are distributed in western North America [33]. However, only one species of Balsamorhiza essential oil has been described in the literature to date. Balsamorhiza sagittata (Pursh) Nutt. is native to western North America. The major essential oil components were germacrene D (10.8-34.5%), β-phellandrene (6.4-19.4%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (1.4-15.0%), and (E)-β-ocimene (3.1-8.4%) [407].
3.1.10. Bidens L.
Bidens is a cosmopolitan genus comprising approximately 245 species [33]. The phytochemistry and biological activities of Bidens pilosa L. has been reviewed [408]. The important essential oils produced from Bidens species include Bidens pilosa L. and Bidens tripartita L. (Table 26).
3.1.11. Blumea DC.
Blumea is a genus of approximately 115 species, which are found naturally in Africa, temperate and tropical Asia [33]. The essential oil compositions and biological activities of Blumea species were reviewed in 2024 [27].
3.1.12. Boltonia L’Hér.
Boltonia is a relatively small genus comprising seven species found in North America [33]. Boltonia asteroides (L.) L'Hér. essential oil was dominated by germacrene D (47.4%) along with (Z,E)-matricaria ester (15.4%) and β-pinene (7.3%) [421].
3.1.13. Chaenactis DC.
There are 21 species of Chaenactis currently listed in the World Flora Online [33], all of which are found in western North America. The essential oil of Chaenactis douglasii Hook. & Arn. showed tiglic acid (35.9%) as the major component, followed by thymol (8.4%) and δ-cadinene (5.0%) [422].
3.1.14. Chamaemelum Mill.
The most important species of this genus is Chamaemelum nobile All. (syn. Anthemis nobilis L., Roman chamomile). The chemotypes of C. nobile (syn. A. nobilis) have been reviewed [28]. The major essential oil components of Chamaemelum species are summarized in Table 27.
3.1.15. Dieteria Nutt.
There are three species of Dieteria, which are found in western North America, Dieteria asteroides Torr., Dieteria bigelovii (A. Gray) D.R.Morgan & R.L.Hartm., and Dieteria canescens (Pursh) Nutt. [33]. Only D. canescens has been analyzed in terms of its essential oil composition [422]. The sesquiterpenoid-rich essential oil was composed largely of δ-cadinene (28.3%), epi-cubebol (24.4%), 1-epi-cubenol (10.0%), and cubenol (7.7%).
3.1.16. Chromolaena DC.
Chromolaena is a large genus comprising approximately 176 species, native to the Americas [33]. Two species, Chromolaena laevigata (Lam.) R.M. King & H. Rob. and Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. have been examined for essential oil compositions (Table 28). Chromolaena laevigata is native to the Neotropics, whereas C. odorata is native to tropical and warm temperate North, Central, and South America, but has been introduced to tropical areas of Africa, Asia, and Australia [33].
3.1.17. Chrysanthemum L.
There are approximately 69 species of Chrysanthemum found in the northern hemisphere [33]. The volatile phytochemistry of Chrysanthemum has been reviewed [442–444]. Only recent aspects of the essential oil compositions of Chrysanthemum are included here (Table 29). The native range of Chrysanthemum indicum L. is to Bhutan, China, India, Japan, Korea, Nepal, Russia, and Uzbekistan [445]. Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. is common in East Asia. These two species are the main parents of commercial (florist’s) chrysanthemum.
3.1.18. Chrysothamnus Nutt.
There are 12 recognized species of Chrysothamus, all of which are found in western North America [33]. The essential oil of Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Nutt. from Idaho, USA, was dominated by monoterpene hydrocarbons (82.6%), including (–)-β-pinene (41.3%), (+)-limonene (17.4%), (+)-sabinene (9.1%), myrcene (4.2%), and (E)-β-ocimene (4.2%) [453].
3.1.9. Clibadium F. Allam. ex L.
There are 38 recognized species of Clibadium, all of which are native to the Neotropics [33]. Only two have been investigated for their essential oils. Clibadium leiocarpum Steetz,
Table 26. Chemical compositions of Bidens essential oils.
Bidens species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Bidens alba DC. | Kendall, Miami, Florida, USA | Leaves | 1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne (54.0%), α-pinene (10.1%), 1-phenylhept-5-ene-1,3-diyne (6.1%) | [409] |
Bidens bipinnata L. | Fortaleza, Ceara, Brazil | Aerial parts | Thymol (17.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (16.8%), γ-cadinene (14.0%), γ-elemene (11.9%), δ-cadinene (5.8%), α-humulene (10.5%), thymyl methyl ether (5.1%) | [410] |
Bidens cernua L. | Vlasina Lake, Serbia | Aerial parts | 1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne (57.1%) | [411]. |
Bidens cernua L. | Southeastern Poland | Aerial parts | Linalool (7.6%), β-elemene (7.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.7%) | [412] |
Bidens frondosa L. | Lishui City, Zhejiang Province, China | Aerial parts | Caryophyllene oxide (20.5%), borneol (17.7%), terpinen-4-ol (17.3%), β-funebrene (6.9%) | [413] |
Bidens graveolens Mart. | Chapada dos Veadeiros, Goiás, Brazil | Leaves | Limonene (22.8-47.7%), α-pinene (18.3-21.0%), β-pinene (14.2-14.9%) | [414] |
Bidens pilosa L. | San Isidro, Buenos Aires, Argentina | Leaves | 1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne (48.0%), germacrene D (18.0%), 1-phenylhept-5-ene-1,3-diyne (13.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.1%) | [409] |
Bidens pilosa L. | Lower Himalaya, India | Roots | Octadecadienola (32.8%), bornyl acetate (19.4%), 1-hexadecanol (7.7%) | [415] |
Bidens pilosa L. | Iwo, Nigeria | Leaves | Caryophyllene oxide (37.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (10.5%), humulene epoxide II (6.0%), germacrene D (5.5%) | [416] |
Bidens pilosa L. | Medicinal Plant Garden, State University of Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil | Leaves | 1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne (69.4%) | [417] |
Bidens tripartita L. | Białystok, Poland | Roots | α-Pinene (15.0%), β-bisabolene (9.3%), p-cymene (6.0%), hexanal (5.7%) | [418] |
Bidens tripartita L. | Bielsk Podlaski, Poland | Aerial parts | allo-Ocimene (38.3%), (Z)-β-ocimene (30.6%) | [419] |
Bidens tripartita L. | Kaunas Botanic Garden, Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania | Aerial partsb | (Z)-β-Ocimene (40.5-45.9%), β-elemene (9.9-15.6%), α-pinene (3.7–12.1 %), α-humulene (5.2-8.2%), trans-α-bergamotene (3.3-9.4%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (4.3-6.8%), p-cymene (2.8–8.0 %) | [420] |
a Correct isomer was not identified. b Supercritical CO2 extraction. | ||||
Table 27. Chemical compositions of Chamaemelum essential oils.
Chamaemelum species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Chamaemelum fuscatum (Brot.) Vasc. | Cerro del Viento, Badajoz, Spain | Aerial parts | (E)-2-Methyl-2-butenyl methacrylate (18.5%), palmitic acid (10.7%), ar-curcumene (8.1%), 2-methylallyl isobutyrate (7.5%) | [423] |
Chamaemelum mixta All. | Corsica | Aerial parts | Santolina alcohol (12.5-26.2%), germacrene D (6.0-28.6%), yomogi alcohol (0.7-16.2%), (E,E)-α-farnesene (3.4-15.6%), artemisia alcohol (1.3-13.2%), (Z)-heptadeca-9,16-dien-7-one (4.4-11.5%), (E)-β-farnesene (1.9-11.3%) | [424] |
Chamaemelum mixta All. | Sardinia | Aerial parts | Santolina alcohol (39.8-46.2%), (Z)-heptadeca-9,16-dien-7-one (12.3-12.7%), (E)-β-farnesene (3.0-5.6%) | [424] |
Chamaemelum nobile All. | Eastern Cape, South Africa | Flowers | α-Bisabolol oxide A (50.0%), (E)-β-farnesene (5.4%) | [425] |
Chamaemelum nobile All. | Southeastern Serbia | Flowers | 3-Methylpentyl angelate (4.9-20.9%), artemisia ketone (4.1-15.9%), isoamyl angelate (5.5-13.8%), isoamyl tiglate (5.5-11.4%), isobutyl angelate (4.3-13.6%), camphene (1.4-12.3%), α-pinene (4.7-10.9%), octyl formate (3.5-7.9%) | [426] |
Chamaemelum nobile All. | Khénifra, Morocco | Aerial parts | Verbenone (33.7%), pulegone (26.5%), 2-isopropyl-5-methylcyclohex-3-en-1-one (8.9%) | [427] |
Chamaemelum nobile All. | Shoushtar, Iran | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (27.8%), β-pinene (7.9%), 1,8-cineole (7.5%), α-pinene (5.9%), α-bisabolol (5.8%) | [428] |
Chamaemelum nobile All. | France | Flowers | Isobutyl angelate (32.1%), 2-methylbutyl angelate (16.2%), isobutyl isobutyrate (5.3%) | [429] |
Chamaemelum nobile All. | Nitra, Slovak Republic | Flowers | Isobutyl angelate (21.6%), 2-methylbutyl angelate (14.4%), 2-methyl-2-propenyl angelate (9.1%), 3-methylamyl angelate (8.4%), isoamyl angelate (5.5%), 2-methylbutyl isobutyrate (5.2%), (E)-2-methyl-2-propenyl isobutyrate | [430] |
Table 28. Chemical compositions of Chromolaena essential oils.
Chromolaena species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Chromolaena laevigata (Lam.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Instituto de Botânica, São Paulo, Brazil | Leaves | Laevigatin (24.2%), spathulenol (17.4%), germacrene D (8.2%), bicyclogermacrene (5.9%), β-bisabolene (5.0%) | [431] |
Chromolaena laevigata (Lam.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Gonzanamá, Loja Province, Ecuador | Aerial parts | Laevigatin (46.8%), germacrene D (15.4%), viridiflorol (11.4%) | [432] |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Godomey, Benin | Leaves | α-Pinene (20.7%), pregeijerene (14.6%), geijerene (12.0%), β-pinene (10.3%), germacrene D (9.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.5%) | [433] |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Jorhat, India | Aerial parts | Geijerene (26.3%), α-copaene (17.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (11.1%), δ-3-carene (10.6%), δ-cadinene (8.0%) | [434] |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Belgaum, Karnataka, India | Roots | Himachalol (24.2%), 7-isopropyl-1,4-dimethyl-2-azulenol (17.6%), androencecalinol (14.1%), 2-methoxy-6-(1-methoxy-2-propenyl)naphthalene (5.6%), dodecane (5.1%) | [435] |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Belgaum, Karnataka, India | Aerial parts | Pregeijerene (14.2%), epi-cubebol (9.8%), cubebol (8.6%), cis-sabinene hydrate (5.7%) | [436] |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Belgaum, Karnataka, India | Flowers | Germacrene D (24.8%), geijerene (12.6%), pregeijerene (12.5%), cyperene (7.8%) | [436] |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Kpalimé, Togo | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (25.2%), germacrene D (18.8%), linalool (7.9%), (Z)-β-farnesene (5.7%) | [437] |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Abomey-Calavi University, Bénin | Leaves | Pregeijerene (16.3-29.9%), germacrene D (13.3-21.6%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.3-14.3%), geijerene (3.5-10.1%), α-pinene (4.1-8.0%) | [438] |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Epe, Lagos, Lagos state, Nigeria | Leaves | α-Pinene (42.2%), β-pinene (10.6%), germacrene D (9.7%), β-copaen-4α-ol (9.4%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.4%) | [439] |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Naresuan University, Thapho, Muang district, Phitsanulok, Thailand | Aerial parts | Pregeijerene (17.6%), germacrene D (11.1%), α-pinene (8.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.3%), vestitenone (6.5%), β-pinene (5.7%) | [440] |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Thailand | Leaves | Pregeijerene (40.6%), dauca-5,8-diene (16.8%), α-pinene (9.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.1%), β-pinene (5.4%) | [25] |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Côte d'Ivoire | Leaves | Germacrene D (13.9-34.5%), pregeijerene (4.2-20.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.0-21.3%), geijerene (3.4-11.1%), α-pinene (1.3-8.6%) | [441] |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. | Côte d'Ivoire | Leaves | Germacrene D (15.3-20.0%), geijerene (14.1-16.9%), pregeijerene (10.7-12.3%), α-pinene (7.6-10.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.6-9.7%), β-pinene (4.2-5.2%) | [23] |
Table 29. Chemical compositions of Chrysanthemum essential oils.
Chrysanthemum species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Chrysanthemum indicum L. | China | Flowers | Camphor (36.7%), iso-borneol (7.6%), α-terpinene (5.7%), caryophyllene oxide (5.5%) | [446] |
Chrysanthemum indicum L. | Shanghai, China | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (20.3%), zingiberene (17.8%), germacrene D (13.2%), δ-cadinene (6.7%), β-eudesmol (5.6%), 1,8-cineole (5.5%) | [447] |
Chrysanthemum indicum L. | Shanghai, China | Flowers | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (14.2%), α-bergamotene (12.2%), 1,8-cineole (9.9%), zingiberene (9.1%), δ-cadinene (7.1%), ar-curcumene (6.2%) | [447] |
Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. | Macheng, China | Flowers | Camphor (16.9%), 1,8-cineole (10.6%), β-curcumene (9.5%), bornyl acetate (7.4%), α-zingiberene (7.0%), β-elemene (6.5%), borneol (6.24%) | [448] |
Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. | Egypt | Leaves | Chrysanthenone (32.8%), borneol (15.1%), (Z)-anethole (9.5%), filifolone (6.3%) | [449] |
Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. | Shenyang, Jiangsu Province, China | Aerial parts | (E)-Tibetin spiroether (20.53%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.8%), (Z)-tibetin spiroether (6.8%), (2E,6E)-farnesyl acetate (6.5%), phytol (5.8%) | [450] |
Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. | Hainoi, Vietnam | Flowers | Chrysanthenone (64.1%), camphor (9.7%), α-thujone (9.0%), γ-eudesmol (5.7%) | [451] |
Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) Bernh. | Debrebrhan, North Shewa, Ethiopia | Aerial parts | trans-Chrysanthenyl acetate (32.4%), camphor (25.6%), trans-chrysanthenol (9.0%) | [452] |
from Monteverde, Costa Rica, was found to be rich in sesquiterpenoids, including germacrene D (21.1%), sabinene (16.0%), germacra-4(15),5,10(14)-trien-1α-ol (11.9%), and (E)-β-caryophyllene (9.2%), as well as the monoterpene β-phellandrene (7.3%) [454]. Clibadium surinamense L. is native to Central America and northern South America, has been introduced to Indonesia [33]. The essential oil from Padang City, West Sumatera Province, Indonesia, was dominated by (E)-β-caryophyllene (30.4%), along with β-sesquiphellandrene (8.5%) and δ-3-carene (8.2%) [455].
3.1.20. Coleostephus Cass.
The essential oil of the Mediterranean plant, Coleostephus myconis (L.) Rchb. f., has been studied. The floral essential oil of C. myconis from Beja, Tunisia, showed τ-muurolol (18.4%), epi-α-bisabolol (18.0%), α-cadinol (9.4%), α-bisabolol oxide B (6.7%), and elemol (5.1%) as its major components [456]. In comparison, the C. myconis floral essential oil from Montemarcello, Italy, was dominated by τ-cadinol (66.2%), along with valeranone (8.2%) and germacrene D (6.0%) [457]. The major components of the essential oil from the flowers of Coleostephus macrotus Durand (syn. Glossopappus macrotus (Walp.) Briq. & Cavill.) from Zaghouan, Tunisia, were cubenol (28.3%), τ-cadinol (10.5%), α-cadinol (6.5%), and pentacosane (5.4%) [458].
3.1.21. Conoclinium DC.
There are only four recognized species of Conoclinium [33] of which only one has been examined for its essential oil. The major components of the essential oil extracted from the aerial parts of Conoclinium coelestinum DC. from northern Alabama were germacrene D (28.8%), (2E)-hexenal (9.6%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.4%), and (Z,Z)-α-farnesene (7.2%) [459].
3.1.22. Conyza Less.
There are around 152 species of Conyza currently recognized by the World Flora Online [33]. However, taxonomic classification is difficult and in flux. Conyza species are generally found in tropical and warm temperate regions [100]. The essential oil compositions of Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist (syn. Erigeron bonariensis L.) [460], Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist (syn. Erigeron canadensis L.) [460,461], and Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) E. Walker (syn. Erigeron sumatrensis Retz.) [460] have been summarized; only recent studies are included in Table 30.
3.1.23. Crassocephalum Moench.
There are 26 recognized species of Crassocephalum, all of which are all native to sub-Saharan Africa [33]. Some of these (e.g., Crassocephalum crepidioides S. Moore) have been introduced to other tropical areas, where they are invasive weedy pests [469]. The major components of the essential oils of Crassocephalum spp. are summarized in Table 31.
3.1.24. Dieteria Nutt.
There are three recognized Dieteria species, Dieteria asteroides Torr., Dieteria bigelovii (A. Gray) D.R. Morgan & R.L. Hartm. and Dieteria canescens (Pursh) Nutt., all of which are
Table 30. Chemical compositions of Conyza essential oils.
Conyza species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Conyza aegyptiaca (L.) Aiton | Giza, Egypt | Aerial parts | Limonene (48.8%), (E)-β-ocimene (8.7%), germacrene D (7.5%), β-pinene (6.9%), bicyclogermacrene (5.3%). | [462] |
Conyza albida Willd. ex Spreng. | Athens, Greece | Aerial parts | (Z)-Lachnophyllum ester (30.0%), germacrene D (12.9%), limonene (11.2%), (E)-β-farnesene (12.5%), (E)-β-ocimene (8.4%), lachnophyllum lactonea (7.1%), bicyclogermacrene (5.3%) | [463] |
Conyza albida Willd. ex Spreng. | Athens, Greece | Aerial parts | (Z)-Lachnophyllum ester (8.8-36.5%), limonene (10.0-21.1%), germacrene D (10.5-20.2%), (E)-β-ocimene (2.5-11.4%), (E)-β-farnesene (3.6-9.6%), bicyclogermacrene (4.2-7.6%), β-pinene (3.9-5.6%) | [464] |
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist | Dagni Koudzragan, Togo | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (16.2%), (E)-β-farnesene (15.5%), limonene (12.8%), (Z)-lachnophyllum ester (9.8%), germacrene D (6.8%) (E)-β-ocimene (5.8%), γ-cadinene (5.3%) | [465] |
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist | Paraiba, João Pessoa, Brazil | Aerial parts | (Z)-Lachnophyllum ester (57.2%), limonene (14.3%), β-sesquiphellandrene (7.0%) | [466] |
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist | Bach Ma National Park, Thue Thien Hue, Vietnam | Aerial parts | allo-Aromadendrene (41.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (13.3%), caryophyllene oxide (12.2%), α-humulene (5.4%) | [460] |
Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist | Al-Jubeiha, Jordan | Leaves | (2E,8Z)-Matricaria ester (60.7%) | [461] |
Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist | Bach Ma National Park, Thue Thien Hue, Vietnam | Aerial parts | Limonene (41.5%), β-pinene (8.8%), (Z)-lachnophyllum ester (5.5%) | [460] |
Conyza newii Oliv. & Hiern | Kenya (various locations) | Leaves | Perilla aldehyde (28.6-31.9%), geraniol (16.6-30.4%), limonene (6.8-13.1%), perilla alcohol (3.1-7.1%), 1,8-cineole (4.4-5.9%) | [467] |
Conyza newii Oliv. & Hiern | Nyanza, Kenya | Leaves | Perilla aldehyde (29.3%), limonene (10.1%), 2-methyl-5-isopropylcyclohex-2-en-1-ol (7.3%), 1,8-cineole (6.8%) | [468] |
Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) E. Walker | Bach Ma National Park, Thue Thien Hue, Vietnam | Aerial parts | Limonene (25.5%), (Z)-lachnophyllum ester (20.7%), caryophyllene oxide (5.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.5%), spathulenol (5.2%) | [460] |
a Correct isomer was not identified. | ||||
Table 31. Chemical compositions of Crassocephalum essential oils.
Crassocephalum species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Crassocephalum biafrae S. Moore | Bafoussam, Cameroon | Leaves | Germacrene D (22.6%), α-pinene (10.8%), α-muurolene (9.6%), (Z)-β-ocimene (6.9%), β-pinene (5.4%) | [470] |
Crassocephalum biafrae S. Moore | Mbalmayo, Cameroon | Leaves | Germacrene D (66.7%) | [470] |
Crassocephalum bougheyanum C.D. Adams | Bafoussam, Cameroon | Leaves | α-Phellandrene (34.9%), p-cymene (26.5%), α-humulene (9.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.3%), caryophyllene oxide (5.4%) | [470] |
Crassocephalum crepidioides S. Moore | Costa Rica | Aerial parts | Myrcene (51.2%), (Z)-β-farnesene (11.3%), β-phellandrene (8.7%), α-copaene (5.0%) | [469] |
Crassocephalum crepidioides S. Moore | Da Nang, Vietnam | Leaves | Myrcene (59.3%), β-phellandrene (11.9%), cryptone (6.4%) | [471] |
Crassocephalum crepidioides S. Moore | Belgaum, Karnataka, India | Aerial parts | Myrcene (45.3%), β-phellandrene (20.2%), dauca-5,8-diene (6.9%) | [472] |
Crassocephalum crepidioides S. Moore | Belgaum, Karnataka, India | Roots | (E)-β-Farnesene (30.6%), α-humulene (10.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.2%), cis-β-guaiene (6.1%), α-bulnesene (5.3%) | [473] |
Crassocephalum crepidioides S. Moore | Nainital district, Kumaon region, Uttarakhand, India | Flowers | Myrcene (54.2%), β-phellandrene (25.9%) | [474] |
Crassocephalum crepidioides S. Moore | Palampur, India | Aerial parts | Myrcene (65.9%), β-phellandrene (8.8%) | [475] |
Crassocephalum crepidioides S. Moore | Fafoussam, Cameroon | Leaves | Myrcene (31.1%), limonene (20.6%), sabinene (17.6%), (E)-β-ocimene (5.6%) | [470] |
Crassocephalum crepidioides S. Moore | Yaounde, Cameroon | Leaves | Limonene (69.7%), myrcene (14.8%), | [470] |
Crassocephalum mannii (Hook. f.) Milne-Redh. | Bafoussam, Cameroon | Leaves | α-Pinene (32.0%), β-pinene (18.4%), germacrene D (16.6%), (E)-β-ocimene (11.0%) | [470] |
Crassocephalum montuosum (S. Moore) Milne-Redh. | Bafoussam, Cameroon | Leaves | α-Phellandrene (87.6%), limonene (5.8%) | [470] |
Crassocephalum montuosum (S. Moore) Milne-Redh. | Yaounde, Cameroon | Leaves | (E)-β-Ocimene (91.6%), α-pinene (5.1%) | [470] |
Crassocephalum rubens (Jacq.) S. Moore | Akobo-Ojurin, Ibadan, Nigeria | Aerial parts | Limonene (81.1%) | [476] |
Crassocephalum rubens (Jacq.) S. Moore | Savalou, Benin | Leaves | Limonene (48.8%), myrcene (30.7%), (E)-β-ocimene (7.4%) | [477] |
Crassocephalum rubens (Jacq.) S. Moore | Bafoussam, Cameroon | Leaves | Limonene (34.2%), α-pinene (19.2%), (E)-β-ocimene (12.0%) | [470] |
Crassocephalum rubens (Jacq.) S. Moore | Yaounde, Cameroon | Leaves | Limonene (44.9%), (E)-β-ocimene (36.3%), myrcene (9.4%) | [470] |
Crassocephalum vitellinum S. Moore | Bafoussam, Cameroon | Leaves | Myrcene (24.6%), α-pinene (23.8%), β-pinene (21.2%), germacrene D (8.5%) | [470] |
Crassocephalum vitellinum S. Moore | Dschang, Cameroon | Leaves | α-Pinene (43.3%), β-pinene (24.8%), germacrene D (5.4%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.3%) | [470] |
Crassocephalum sp. (unidentified) | Gabia, Gôh region, Côte d'Ivoire | Flowers | Myrcene (87.3%) | [478] |
native to western North America [33]. Only D. canescens from Boise, Idaho, USA, has been analyzed for its essential oil. The major components were δ-cadinene (28.3%), epi-cubebol (24.4%), 1-epi-cubenol (10.0%), and cubenol (7.7%) [422].
3.1.25. Dittrichia Greuter
According to the World Flora Online, there are only two species of Dittrichia, Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter and Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter. The phytochemistry and bioactivities of D. viscosa have been reviewed [479, 480], including a survey of essential oil compositions [481]. Mitic and co-workers have surveyed the essential oil compositions of D. graveolens and identified four chemotypes, (1) bornyl acetate, (2) 1,8-cineole, (3) borneol/bornyl acetate, and (4) borneol [482]. The major components of the essential oils of D. graveolens and D. viscosa are summarized in Table 32.
3.1.26. Echinops L.
There are approximately 194 species of Echinops recognized by the World Flora Online [33], which are naturally distributed from central Asia, Mongolia and north-eastern China to the Mediterranean basin, temperate regions of Eurasia, reaching to Indian subcontinent and tropical Africa [33]. The phytochemistry and biological activities of the genus have been reviewed several times [29, 493–495]. Polyacetylenes and thiophenes characterize members of the genus, but essential oils have also been characterized. Recent essential oil compositions of Echinops species are summarized in Table 33.
3.1.27. Emilia Cass.
Although there are 121 species of Emilia have been listed in the World Flora Online [33], only three species have been investigated for their essential oil composition. The leaf essential oil of Emilia coccinea G. Don was rich in α-terpinyl acetate (31.3%), whereas the root essential oil was rich in 1,8-cineole (21.4%) [506]. The major components of the leaf essential oil of Emilia fosbergii Nicolson from Brazil were the sesquiterpenoids, including
Table 32. Chemical compositions of Dittrichia essential oils.
Dittrichia species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter | Shush, Khuzestan, Iran | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (54.9%), p-cymene (16.2%), β-pinene (6.9%), borneol (5.4%) | [483] |
Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter | Bekaa, Lebanon | Aerial parts | Bornyl acetate (72.3%), τ-cadinol (13.4%) | [484] |
Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter | Sannine, Lebanon | Aerial parts | Bornyl acetate (70.6%), borneol (12.4%) | [484] |
Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter | Shushtar, Khuzestan Province, Iran | Aerial parts | Borneol (38.2%), bornyl acetate (14.9%) | [485] |
Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter | Stara Planina Mountain, Serbia | Aerial parts | Bornyl acetate (21.7%), borneol (18.7%), τ-cadinol (14.6%), caryophyllene oxide (9.6%) | [486] |
Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter | Vladimirovci, Montenegro | Aerial parts | Borneol (43.6%), bornyl acetate (38.3%) | [482] |
Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter | Fez, Morocco | Aerial parts | Isocostic acid (72.3%), juniper camphor (5.1%) | [232] |
Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter | Irbid, Jordan | Aerial parts | Fokienol (20.9%), (E)-nerolidol (19.8%), β-eudesm-6-en-4α-ol (5.6%) | [487] |
Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter | Spain | Aerial parts | Fokienol (38.8%), (E)-nerolidol (7.1%) | [488] |
Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter | Marciana, Elba Island, Italy | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (16.7%), limonene (15.5%), terpinen-4-ol (6.9%), β-pinene (6.2%), | [489] |
Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter | Žnjan locality, Split, Croatia | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (16.4%), caryophyllene oxide (15.1%), α-terpinyl acetate (13.9%), α-muurolol (13.8%), linalool (6.6%) | [490] |
Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter | Bainem Forest, Algeria | Leaves | Caryophyllene oxide (10.4%), fokienol (9.6%), α-eudesmol (7.6%), (E)-nerolidol (7.0%), γ-eudesmol (6.2%) | [481] |
Dittrichia viscosa subsp. revoluta (Hoffmanns. & Link) P. Silva & Tutin | Algarve, Portugal | Aerial parts | 3-Methoxycuminyl isobutyrate (12.0%), α-cadinol (6.3%) | [491] |
Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter subsp. viscosa | Ajaccio, Corsica, France | Aerial parts | Isocostic acid (43.7%), fokienol (21.1%), eudesma-4,11(13)-dien-12-oic acid (10.9%), (E)-nerolidol (8.6%), eudesm-6-en-4α-ol (6.2%) | [492] |
Table 33. Chemical compositions of Echinops essential oils.
Echinops species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Echinops bannaticus Rochel ex Schrad. | Southern Serbia | Roots | 5-(3-Buten-1-ynyl)-2,2′-bithienyl (47.3%), α-terthienyl (15.5%) | [496] |
Echinops giganteus A. Rich. | Western Cameroon | Roots | Silphiperfol-6-ene (26.9%), presilphiperfol-7(8)-ene (9.4%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.3%) | [497] |
Echinops graecus Mill. | Prefecture Attiki, Greece | Aerial parts | Estragole (42.5%), pentacosane (9.5%), cyclopentadecanolide (7.9%), camphor (6.5%), benzyl benzoate (6.3%), heptacosane (6.1%), linalool (5.6%), (3Z)-hexenyl benzoate (5.3%) | [498] |
Echinops grijsii Hance | Jiangsu Province, China | Roots | 5-(3-Buten-1-ynyl)-2,2′-bithienyl (27.6%), α-terthienyl (15.0%), 1,8-cineole (5.6%), (Z)-β-ocimene (5.0%) | [499] |
Echinops ilicifolius Bunge | Yazd Province, Iran | Roots | Decane (23.1%), dodecane (14.5%), silphiperfol-4,7(14)-diene (11.1%), selin-11-en-4α-ol (9.5%), palmitic acid (7.8%), tetradecane (5.3%) | [500] |
Echinops ilicifolius Bunge | Yazd Province, Iran | Leaves | Palmitic acid (36.3%), linalool (16.4%), geraniol (8.3%), | [500] |
Echinops kebericho Mesfin | West Shoa region, Ethiopia | Roots | Eudesm-7(11)-en-4-ol (14.3%), caryophyllene oxide (9.7%), τ-cadinol (8.3%), (E)-nerolidol (7.2%) | [501] |
Echinops kebericho Mesfin | Inchini, Ethiopia | Roots | Dehydrocostus lactone (41.8%), β-phellandrene (10.8%), germacrene B (5.4%) | [502] |
Echinops latifolius Tausch | Xiaolongmen National Forest, China | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (19.6%), (Z)-β-ocimene (18.4%), β-pinene (15.6%) | [503] |
Echinops polyceras Boiss. | Jordan | Flowering inforescence | Pseudophytol (7.8%), β-bisabolene (7.5%), dolabradiene (5.5%) | [504] |
Echinops ritro L. | Prefecture Attiki, Greece | Aerial parts | (2E)-Hexenal (21.4%), 1,8-cineole (16.3%), p-cymene (12.1%), linalool (9.8%) | [498] |
Echinops sphaerocephalus L. | Southern Serbia | Roots | 5-(3-Buten-1-ynyl)-2,2′-bithienyl (48.9%), α-terthienyl (13.7%) | [496] |
Echinops spinosus L. | Southern Tunisia | Roots | δ-Cadinene (27.2%), 5-(3-buten-1-ynyl)-2,2′-bithienyl (21.3%), α-terthienyl (18.0%), caryophyllene oxide (5.2%) | [505] |
germacrene B (23.6%), spathulenol (11.5%), cis-muurola-4(14),5-diene (10.3%), β-longipinene (9.4%), α-humulene (7.8%), γ-gurjunene (7.2%), and β-vetivene (5.9%) [507]. The leaf essential oil of Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC., collected from southwestern Nigeria, was dominated by the sesquiterpenoids γ-himachalene (25.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (15.7%), and γ-gurjunene (8.6%), along with the fatty acid palmitic acid (5.2%) [508].
3.1.28. Encelia Adans.
As far as we are aware, only the essential oil of Encelia farinosa A. Gray ex Torr. from the Sonoran Desert in Arizona has been characterized [509]. The major components of the leaf essential oil were eupatoriochromene (20.8%), limonene (14.1%), α-pinene (11.6%), bicyclogermacrene (9.8%), sabinene (9.2%), and germacrene D (7.4%). The essential oil from the stems was dominated by α-pinene (53.5%) and bicyclogermacrene (10.7%).
3.1.29. Erechtites Raf.
There are approximately 19 species of Erechtites, which are native to the New World, but have been introduced to Africa, Asia, Australasia, Europe, and the Pacific islands [33]. The essential oils of two species, Erechtites hieraciifolius (L.) Raf. ex DC. and Erechtites valerianifolius (Wolf) DC. have been analyzed [510]. Erechtites hieraciifolius and E. valerianifolius essential oils from South America have shown wide variations in their chemical compositions. The essential oil of E. hieraciifolius aerial parts from Vietnam, which showed mosquito larvicidal activity, was rich in limonene (21.4%) and caryophyllene oxide (15.1%). The essential oil of E. valerianifolius from Vietnam was dominated by myrcene (47.8%) and α-pinene (30.2%) [510].
3.1.30. Ericameria Nutt.
The essential oils of Ericameria nauseosa (Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird and Ericameria linearifolia (DC.) Urbatsch & Wussow were analyzed. The major components of the essential oil from the aerial parts of Ericameria linearifolia (southwestern Utah, USA) were sabinene (13.2-14.3%), β-pinene (4.0-13.4%), β-phellandrene (0.3-13.9%), myrcene (6.0-12.2%), terpinen-4-ol (6.3-8.1%), limonene (1.5-15.8%), (Z)-β-ocimene (4.6-6.1%), (E)-β-ocimene (3.3-7.5%), and α-pinene (4.5-8.2%) [511]. The essential oil compositions of E. nauseosa showed wide variations depending on geographical location. The major components of the essential oil from Utah, USA, were β-phellandrene (20.0%), limonene (9.6%), β-pinene (9.3%), and myrcene (5.4%), the essential oil from Idaho, USA, was composed of β-phellandrene (43.6%), β-pinene (11.5%), (Z)-β-ocimene (11.5%), sabinene (6.0%), and 1,3,8-p-menthatriene (5.3%) [512]; whereas the major components in the essential oil from Montana, USA, were γ-decalactone (13.3%), cryptone (9.4%), and terpinen-4-ol (9.3%) [513].
3.1.31. Eriocephalus L.
Eriocephalus is a genus of 37 species, found naturally in southern Africa [33]. Of these, essential oils from nine species have been reported (Table 34).
3.1.32. Eupatorium L.
There are approximately 117 species of Eupatorium, which are naturally found in tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, Europe, North and South America [33]. However, the taxonomy of the genus is currently in flux. The phytochemistry, including the volatile components of Eupatorium was reviewed in 2015 [522] and the antimicrobial activities of Eupatorium species were reviewed in 2017 [523]. A summary of Eupatorium major essential oil components was published in 2020 [13]. Recently published essential oil data are summarized in Table 35.
3.1.33. Flourensia DC.
According to World Flora Online, there are 33 species of Flourensia [33]. However, only three species have been analyzed in terms of their essential oil compositions (Table 36).
3.1.34. Grindelia Willd.
Of the 68 species of Grindelia recognized by World Flora Online [33], only six have been investigated in terms of essential oil composition (reviewed in [539], Table 37).
3.1.35. Gutierrezia Lag.
Only three species of Gutierrezia have been analyzed in terms of their essential oil composition (Table 38).
3.1.36. Helianthus L.
There are 79 species of Helianthus listed in the World Flora Online [33]. The two most investigated species are Helianthus annuus L. (common sunflower) and Helianthus tuberosus L. (Jerusalem artichoke). The essential oils of these two and other Helianthus species are summarized in Table 39.
Table 34. Chemical compositions of Eriocephalus essential oils.
Eriocephalus species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Eriocephalus africanus L. | Alexandria, Egypt | Leaves | Artemisia ketone (77.9%), ledol (19.9%) | [514] |
Eriocephalus africanus L. | Dakahlia, Egypt | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (41.0%), juniper camphor (14.2%), yomogi alcohol (7.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.3%) | [515] |
Eriocephalus africanus L. | Medifood, Egypt | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (38.4%), juniper camphor (17.0%), epi-γ-eudesmol (5.3%) | [516] |
Eriocephalus africanus L. | Burjassot, Spain | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (56.5%), intermedeol (9.6%), γ-eudesmol (5.6%) | [517] |
Eriocephalus africanus L. | Sagunto, Spain | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (56.6%), intermedeol (11.6%) | [517] |
Eriocephalus africanus L. | Valencia, Spain | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (56.6%), intermedeol (9.2%) | [517] |
Eriocephalus africanus L. | Giza, Egypt | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (30.6%) | [518] |
Eriocephalus dinteri S. Moore | Near Aus, Namibia | Aerial parts | Camphor (38.4%) | [519] |
Eriocephalus ericoides Druce | Windhoek district, Namibia | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (39.0%), camphor (14.3%), yomogi alcohol (5.6%), 2,6-dimethyl-3,5-heptadien-2-ol (5.4%) | [519] |
Eriocephalus ericoides Druce | Farm Hohenheim, Namibia | Aerial parts | Linalool (10.4%), linalyl acetate (5.0%) | [519] |
Eriocephalus klinghardtensis M.A.N. Müll. | Neiaab Mountain, Namibia | Aerial parts | Chrysanthenone (24.4%), p-cymene (8.9%), α-pinene (7.9%), trans-chrysanthenyl acetate (5.6%), terpinen-4-ol (5.4%), β-eudesmol (5.3%) | [519] |
Eriocephalus luederitzianus O. Hoffm. | Near Windhoek, Namibia | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (30.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (13.3%), β-pinene (10.3%), α-longipinene (10.3%), p-cymene (6.7%) | [519] |
Eriocephalus merxmuelleri M.A.N. Müll. | Buschmanberge, Namibia | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (17.4%), camphor (14.0%), yomogi alcohol (6.1%), chrystanthenone (5.2%) | [519] |
Eriocephalus pinnatus O. Hoffm. | Brandberg, Namibia | Aerial parts | Isoamyl 2-methylbutyrate (7.9%), β-pinene (7.2%), isoamyl valerate (6.5%) | [519] |
Eriocephalus punctulatus DC. | Commercial (South Africa) | Aerial parts | 2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate (27.4%), isobutyl isobutyrate (14.3%), 2-methylbutyl 2-methylbutyrate (5.5%) | [520] |
Eriocephalus punctulatus DC. | Commercial (South Africa) | Not indicated | 2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate (21.5%), isobutyl isobutyrate (10.1%) | [521] |
Eriocephalus scariosus DC. | Near Aus, Namibia | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (24.1%), camphor (17.2%), santolina alcohol (14.8%), borneol (5.8%) | [519] |
Table 35. Chemical compositions of Eupatorium essential oils.
Eupatorium species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. | Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (13.5%), τ-cadinol (16.6%), bornyl acetate (7.7%), α-phellandrene (7.5%), δ-2-carene (5.8%) | [524] |
Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. | Sahiya (Chakrata), Dehradun, India | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (12.9%), α-phellandrene (9.4%), cis-cadin-4-en-7-ol (7.5%), bornyl acetate (6.0%), camphene (5.8%), γ-patchoulene (5.2%) | [525] |
Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. | Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China | Whole plant | α-Muurolol (30.1%), aristolone (11.5%), α-bisabolol (9.1%), α-curcumene (7.9%), palmitic acid (5.2%) | [526] |
Eupatorium africanum Oliv. & Hieron. | Bombo-Lumene Game reserve, Kinshasa Province, D.R. Congo | Leaves | β-Eudesmol (49.1%), 10-epi-γ-eudesmol (11.3%), α-humulene (8.9%), hedycaryol (8.9%), elemeol (5.8%) | [527] |
Eupatorium betonicaeforme (DC.) Baker | Acarape County, State of Ceará, Brazil | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (41.7%), γ-murrolene (19.0%), bicyclogermacrene (17.5%), α-humulene (11.7%) | [528] |
Eupatorium buniifolium Hook. & Arn. | Potrero de los Funes, Argentina | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (47.4%), (E)-β-ocimene (8.3%), limonene (7.7%), sabinene (6.5%), δ-2-carene (6.4%) | [529] |
Eupatorium buniifolium Hook. & Arn. | Las Brujas, Canelones, Uruguay | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (18.0%), trans-β-guaiene (9.0%), germacrene D (7.7%), β-pinene (7.0%), limonene (5.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.0%) | [530] |
Eupatorium buniifolium Hook. & Arn. | Sauce-Canelones, Uruguay | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (22.0%), trans-β-guaiene (10.0%), germacrene D (7.8%), β-pinene (6.1%), sabinene (5.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.8%) | [9] |
Eupatorium fortunei Turcz. | Zhengzhou City, Henan Province, China | Aerial parts | α-Phellandrene (60.5%), thymyl tiglate (9.1%) p-cymene (8.0%), methyl thymyl ether (5.6%) | [531] |
Eupatorium glutinosum Lam. | Provincia Del Napo, Ecuador | Aerial parts | Carvacrol (43.6%), caryophyllene oxide (10.8%), terpinen-4-ol (7.7%), p-cymene (6.6%), thymol (5.5%) | [532] |
Eupatorium intermedium DC. | Palmeira, State of Paraná, Brazil | Leaves | β-Pinene (25.9%), α-pinene (19.8%), limonene (15.0%), trans-muurola-4(14),5-diene (10.6%), bicyclogermacrene (9.1%) | [533] |
Eupatorium serotinum Michx. | North Alabama, U.S.A. | Aerial parts | Cyclocolorenone (23.4%), α-copaen-11-ol (7.9%), germacrene D (6.6%), palustrol (5.3%) | [13] |
Table 36. Chemical compositions of Fluorensia essential oils.
Flourensia species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Flourensia campestris Griseb. | Punilla Valley, Córdoba Province, Argentina | Leaves | (Z)-β-Ocimene (19.6%), germacrene A (14.6%), santolina triene (12.6%), δ-selinene (8.0%), α-pinene (6.0%) | [534] |
Flourensia cernua DC. | Estanque de León, Coahuila de Zaragoza, Mexico | Leaves | α-Himachalene (21.5%), ledol (19.5%), β-eudesmol (13.2%), elemol (11.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (11.1%), germacrene D (8.0%) | [535] |
Flourensia cernua DC. | Tortuga, Coahuila de Zaragoza, Mexico | Leaves | Ledol (27.7%), β-himachalene (19.4%), β-selinol (16.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (10.8%), elemol (7.8%), germacrene D (7.8%) | [535] |
Flourensia cernua DC. | Jornada Experimental Range, New Mexico, U.S.A. | Aerial parts | β-Eudesmol (24.5%), α-eudesmol (6.9%), limonene (6.6%) | [536] |
Flourensia oolepis S.F. Blake | El Volcan, San Luis, Argentina | Aerial parts | γ-Gurjunene (20.7%), δ-cadinene (10.3%), 2-methylene-4,8,8-trimethyl-4-vinyl-bicyclo[5.2.0]nonanea (10.2%), santolina triene (6.2%), τ-muurolene (6.1%) | [537] |
Flourensia oolepis S.F. Blake | Córdoba, Argentina | Aerial parts | τ-Cadinol (10.5%), β-selinene (9.8%), linalool (8.2%), β-eudesmol (8.0%) | [538] |
a This structure is not found in the Dictionary of Natural Products [98]. | ||||
Table 37. Chemical compositions of Grindelia essential oils.
Grindelia species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Grindelia discoidea Hook. & Arn. | Central Argentina | Aerial parts | (Z,E)-Farnesol (18.2-34.9%), (E,E)-farnesol (9.0-16.8%), γ-cadinene (9.4-15.6%), globulol (6.2-10.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (trace-8.6%), δ-cadinene (3.2-6.1%) | [540] |
Grindelia hirsutula Hook. & Arn. | Targu Mures, Romania | Aerial parts | Limonene (7.0%), α-pinene (6.2%), germacrene D (4.2%), spathulenol (5.5%), 10,11-epoxycalamenene (4.1%) | [541] |
Grindelia humilis Hook. & Arn. | Cairo, Egypt | Aerial parts | Polyacetylene isomer (22.1%), germacrene D (11.9%), polyacetylene isomer (10.5%), bornyl acetate (5.1%), α-pinene (4.9%), (E)-lachnophyllol acetate (4.1%) | [542] |
Grindelia integrifolia DC. | Łodz, Poland | Leaves | Myrcene (16.9%), spathulenol (12.3%), β-eudesmol (11.9%), limonene (10.1%), α-cadinene (6.4%), α-pinene (4.6%), germacrene D (4.5%), humulene epoxide I (4.1%) | [543] |
Grindelia robusta Nutt. | Casola Valsenio, Italy | Aerial parts | Borneol (15.0%), α-pinene (11.0%), trans-pinocarveol (8.2%), β-eudesmol (5.5%), bornyl acetate (4.4%), β-selinene (4.3%), limonene (4.2%), | [544] |
Grindelia robusta Nutt. | Commerciala | Aerial parts | Borneol (14.8%), α-pinene (8.8%), trans-pinocarveol (6.1%), bornyl acetate (5.4%), limonene (4.1%), p-cymen-8-ol (4.1%) | [542] |
Grindelia robusta Nutt. | Urbino, Italy | Aerial parts | Borneol (15.2%), α-pinene (10.3%), trans-pinocarveol (7.0%), bornyl acetate (4.5%), limonene (4.3%), β-eudesmol (4.1%) | [545] |
Grindelia robusta Nutt. | Erlangen, Germany | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (23.3%), α-pinene (13.4%), germacrene B (8.3%), myrcene (7.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (4.1%) | [546] |
Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal | Commerciala | Aerial parts | Limonene (16.8%), α-pinene (16.1%), germacrene D (6.8%), β-pinene (5.2%), borneol (4.5%) | [542] |
Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal | Southwestern Idaho, USA | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (21.9%), limonene (17.1%), terpinolene (10.6%), borneol (6.5%), β-pinene (4.2%) | [539] |
Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal | Erlangen, Germany | Aerial parts | Limonene (16.2%), germacrene B (13.2%), α-pinene (10.4%), phytone (6.5%), bornyl isovalerate (4.3%) | [546] |
Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal | Southwestern Montana, USA | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (23.2%), borneol (16.6%), limonene (14.7%), p-cymen-8-ol (5.8%), bornyl acetate (5.1%) | [547] |
Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal | Targu Mures, Romania | Aerial parts | Bornyl acetate (10.8%), α-pinene (8.3%), limonene (8.1%), spathulenol (5.4%), caryophyllene oxide (4.9%) | [541] |
a Commercial sample, source not indicated. | ||||
Table 38. Chemical compositions of Gutierrezia essential oils.
Gutierrezia species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Gutierrezia mandonii (Sch.Bip.) Solbrig | Tafí del Valle, Tumucán, Argentina | Aerial parts | Limonene (13.3%), sabinene (13.1%), δ-2-carene (7.7%), (6R,7R)-bisabolone (6.6%), β-pinene (6.4%), | [548, 549] |
Gutierrezia repens Griseb. | Tafí del Valle, Tumucán, Argentina | Aerial parts | (6R,7R)-Bisabolone (58.0%), β-pinene (17.8%), (E)-β-ocimene (7.0%) | [548, 549] |
Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britton & Rusby | Muskrat Canyon, Utah, USA | Aerial parts | (+)-α-Pinene (12.6–22.9%), (–)-β-pinene (27.6–40.4%), (+)-limonene (7.2–13.1%), camphor (0.7–10.9%), (–)-pinocarvone (trace-11.3%), and (+)-verbenone (trace-6.0%) | [550] |
Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britton & Rusby | Jornada Experimental Range, south-central New Mexico, USA | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (0.4–9.4%), β-pinene 0.7–9.6%), p-cymene (2.5–7.9%), limonene (2.4–13.4%), cryptone (2.4–8.1%), bornyl acetate (2.8–4.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (2.3–4.8%), β-eudesmol (0.1–5.9%) | [551] |
Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britton & Rusby | Eunice, New Mexico, USA | Aerial parts | Geraniol (53.8%), γ-humulene (12.2%), trans-verbenol (6.0%) | [552] |
Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britton & Rusby | Owyhee Mountains, Idaho, USA | Aerial parts | (Z)-β-Ocimene (18.8–39.4%), limonene (1.4–25.4%), β-pinene (0.5–18.4%), α-phellandrene (2.2–11.8%), (Z,E)-matricaria ester (0.2–9.3%), (E,Z)-matricaria ester (0.1–7.5%) | [553] |
Table 39. Chemical compositions of Helianthus essential oils.
Helianthus species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Helianthus annuus L. | Southern high plains, USA | Leaves | α-Pinene (50.5%), bornyl acetate (12.2%), camphene (8.7%), β-pinene (5.1%) | [554] |
Helianthus annuus L. | San Diego, California, USA | Leaves | α-Pinene (47.5%), sabinene (12.5%), limonene (5.6%) | [554] |
Helianthus annuus L. | Preston, Idaho, USA | Leaves | α-Pinene (31.4%), bornyl acetate (21.0%), limonene (7.2%), camphene (6.7%) β-pinene (5.8%) | [554] |
Helianthus annuus L. | Redmond, Oregon, USA | Leaves | α-Pinene (28.3%), bornyl acetate (16.8%), germacrene D (8.2%), limonene (7.2%), camphene (7.2%) | [554] |
Helianthus annuus L. | Eagle Nest, New Mexico, USA | Leaves | α-Pinene (27.3%), bornyl acetate (16.3%), germacrene D (15.6%), β-pinene (5.3%) | [554] |
Helianthus annuus L. | Camp Verde, Arizona, USA | Leaves | Germacrene D (19.1%), α-pinene (17.4%), limonene (10.0%), β-phellandrene (6.7%) | [554] |
Helianthus annuus L. | Ijanikin, Lagos, Nigeria | Leaves | α-Pinene (16.0%), sabinene (9.4%), germacrene D (9.0%) | [555] |
Helianthus annuus L. | Da’an City, Jilin Province, China | Recepticles | α-Pinene (26.0%), verbenone (7.4%), calarene (5.3%) | [556] |
Helianthus annuus L. cv. “Carlos” | Università di Pisa, Italy | Seeds | α-Pinene (56.3%), cis-verbenol (16.7%), β-gurjunene (7.2%) | [557] |
Helianthus annuus L. cv. “Carlos” | Università di Pisa, Italy | Leaves | α-Pinene (28.9%), sabinene (23.2%), limonene (12.3%), germacrene D (8.8%), bornyl acetate (7.8%), camphene (5.4%) | [558] |
Helianthus annuus L. cv. “Carlos” | Università di Pisa, Italy | Capitula | α-Pinene (70.7%), sabinene (12.1%) | [558] |
Helianthus annuus L. cv. “Chianti” | Gurley, north Alabama, USA | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (50.7%), camphene (7.3%), limonene (7.2%), bornyl acetate (7.1%), sabinene (6.8%), β-pinene (5.8%) | [559] |
Helianthus annuus L. cv. “Florom 350” | Università di Pisa, Italy | Seeds | α-Pinene (43.1%), β-gurjunene (13.0%), cis-verbenol (16.7%) | [557] |
Helianthus annuus L. cv. “Florom 350” | Università di Pisa, Italy | Leaves | α-Pinene (28.2%), sabinene (23.5%), limonene (11.1%), germacrene D (8.2%), bornyl acetate (8.0%) | [558] |
Helianthus annuus L. cv. “Florom 350” | Università di Pisa, Italy | Capitula | α-Pinene (74.5%), sabinene (11.2%) | [558] |
Helianthus annuus L. cv. “LD5009” | Baicheng, Jilin Province, China | Receptacles | α-Pinene (29.9%), p-mentha-1,5-dien-8-ol (10.5%), campholenal (5.5%) | [560] |
Helianthus annuus L. cv. "Mammoth" | Gurley, north Alabama, USA | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (48.9%), sabinene (17.0%), limonene (7.1%), germacrene D (6.8%) | [559] |
Helianthus annuus L. cv. “S606” | Baicheng, Jilin Province, China | Receptacles | Desmethoxyencecalin (28.5%), γ-gurjunene (19.9%), α-pinene (10.3%) | [560] |
Helianthus annuus L. cv. “SH363” | Baicheng, Jilin Province, China | Receptacles | Desmethoxyencecalin (15.5%), α-pinene (15.3%), γ-gurjunene (11.9%), verbenone (6.9%), p-mentha-1,5-dien-8-ol (6.2%), campholenal (5.3%) | [560] |
Helianthus petiolaris Nutt. | La Pampa, Argentina | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (66%), germacrene D (16%), bornyl acetate (10%), camphene (8%) | [561] |
Helianthus strumosus L. | Huntsville, Alabama, USA | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (58.7%), myrcene (9.8%), bornyl acetate (5.0%) | [559] |
Helianthus tuberosus L. | Ukraine | Leaves | β-Bisabolene (70.5%), (Z)-α-bisabolene epoxide (12.6%) | [562] |
Helianthus tuberosus L. | Ukraine | Tubers | β-Bisabolene (63.1%), squalene (9.8%), phenylacetaldehyde (8.3%), verbenone (6.2%), bornyl acetate (5.2%) | [562] |
Helianthus tuberosus L. | Leskovac, southern Serbia | Tubers | β-Bisabolene (22.9%), undecanal (12.7%), α-pinene (7.6%), kauran-16-ol (6.9%), 2-pentylfuran (5.7%) | [563] |
3.1.37. Helichrysum Mill.
There are approximately 580 species of Helichrysum recognized by World Flora Online [33]. Among these, Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don is of commercial importance in
aromatherapy [564]. However, there is a high degree of variation in the chemical compositions of H. italicum, and at least 10 chemotypes have been identified: (1) high neryl acetate (50.5-83.4%), (2) moderate neryl acetate (19.5-48.0%), (3) high α-pinene content (25.2-53.5%), (4) moderate α-pinene content (5.6-20.0%), (5) juniper camphor chemotype, (6) γ-selinene chemotype, (7) γ-curcumene chemotype, (8) ar-curcumene/γ-curcumene chemotype, (9) neryl acetate/ar-curcumene chemotype, and (10) high italidiones [565]. In addition, several review articles on Helichrysum phytochemistry, including essential oil composition, and pharmacology have been published [565–570]. The recent data of major components of Helichrysum essential oils are summarized in Table 40.
3.1.38. Heliopsis Pers.
Apparently, there has been only one publication of an essential oil from a Heliopsis, Heliopsis helioanthoides (L.) Sweet, cultivated in southern Alabama, USA [580]. The major components of the the essential oil extracted from the aerial parts were germacrene D (42.4%) and 4-vinylguaicol (5.5%).
3.1.39. Heteromera Pomel
The leaf essential oil of Heteromera fuscata Pomel (syn. Chrysanthemum fuscatum Desf.) from Gafsa, Tunisia, was largely composed of limonene (20.6%), germacrene D (10.4%),
Table 40. Chemical compositions of Helichrysum essential oils.
Helichrysum species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench | Utena district, eastern Lithuania | Inflorescences | Palmitic acid (23.8%), myristic acid (14.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.4%), methyl linolenate (5.3%) | [571] |
Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench | Utena district, eastern Lithuania | Leaves | Palmitic acid (18.8%), nonanal (10.4%), myristic acid (8.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.5%) | [571] |
Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench | Alax, Inner Mongolia, China | Aerial parts | Spathulenol (20.0%), α-bisabolol (10.2%), ledol (10.0%), bicyclogermacrene (5.7%), aromadendrene (5.2%) | [572] |
Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench | Yozgat Akdagmadeni district, Türkiye | Inflorescences | Oleic acid (30.3%), ethyl palmitate (20.2%), linoleic acid (18.9%) | [573] |
Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench | Varna, Bulgaria | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (34.6–44.4%), sabinene (10.6–11.1%) | [569] |
Helichrysum benthamii R. Vig. & Humbert | Ambatobe, Madagascar | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (23.1-50.8%), α-copaene (5.4-8.5%), caryophyllene oxide (1.5-6.8%), α-humulene (3.1-6.4%) | [574] |
Helichrysum bujerianum DC. | Mount Tsiafakafokely, Madagascar | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (16.1%), γ-curcumene (9.0%), δ-cadinene (7.6%), γ-cadinene (6.5%), aristolochene (6.2%) | [574] |
Helichrysum chionophilum Boiss. & Balansa | Kayseri, Arslantaş plateau, Türkiye | Aerial parts | Capric acid (18.9%), myristic acid (17.0%), lauric acid (13.9%), palmitic acid (12.3%) | [575] |
Helichrysum cooperi Harv. | Sanremo, Italy | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (16.4%), sabinene (14.7%), terpinen-4-ol (8.4%), himachalol (6.6%), α-thujene (5.0%) | [576] |
Helichrysum cymosum (L.) D.Don | Bellville, South Africa | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (29.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (19.2%), 1,8-cineole (15.1%), (E)-β-ocimene (8.2%) | [570] |
Helichrysum diotoides DC. | Alakamisiy kely, Madagascar | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (15.0%), δ-cadinene (5.6%) | [574] |
Helichrysum dubardii R. Vig. & Humbert | Ambatobe, Madagascar | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (26.9-35.7%), α-pinene (5.8-6.6%), α-muurolene (3.2-7.2%) | [574] |
Helichrysum edwardsii Wild | Sanremo, Italy | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (31.2%), sabinene (22.4%), β-thujone (8.7%) | [576] |
Helichrysum hirtum Humbert | Arivonimamo, Madagascar | Aerial parts | 7-epi-Silphiperfol-5-en-13-oic acid (18.2-40.0%), silphiperfol-5-en-13-oic acid (4.0-10.6%), 7-epi-subergorgiol (7.6-14.8%) 7β-H-silphiperfol-5-ene (1.8-14.8%), presilphiperfolan-9α-ol (6.9-8.0%), β-betulenal (3.8-5.4%), α-humulene (1.1-5.1%) | [574] |
Helichrysum ibityense R. Vig. & Humbert | Mount Ibity, Madagascar | Leaves | 1,8-Cineole (69.5%) | [577] |
Helichrysum indutum Humbert | Alaotra Mangoro, Madagascar | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (33.1%) | [574] |
Helichrysum noeanum Boiss. | Ankara, Bala-Kaman, Türkiye | Aerial parts | Palmitic acid (25.3%), lauric acid (17.8%), myristic acid (13.7%) | [575] |
Helichrysum odoratissimum Sweet | Commercial essential oil, Bellville, South Africa | Not indicated | 1,8-Cineole (17.4%), α-pinene (15.8%), γ-curcumene (15.8%), ar-curcumene (7.6%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.3%), α-terpineol (5.5%), β-pinene (5.2%) | [570] |
Helichrysum odoratissimum Sweet | Sanremo, Italy | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (25.1%), α-pinene (16.5%), epi-cubebol (9.0%), β-selinene (8.1%), epi-α-bisabolol (5.6%), 14-hydroxy-9-epi-(E)-caryophyllene (5.0%) | [576] |
Helichrysum pallasii Ledeb. | Armutlu district of Bayburt province, Türkiye | Inflorescences | α-Springene (34.9%), iso-ledene (7.1%), δ-selinene (5.8%), aristolene (5.1%) | [578] |
Helichrysum pandurifolium Schrank | Sanremo, Italy | Aerial parts | Viridiflorol (60.3%), δ-cadinene (7.5%), α-pinene (5.8%) | [576] |
Helichrysum petiolare Hilliard & B.L.Burtt | Bellville, South Africa | Aerial parts | Faurinone (20.7%), (E)-β-ocimene (17.2%), β-pinene (10.5%), 1,8-cineole (9.9%), α-pinene (7.5%), allo-ocimene (6.7%) | [570] |
Helichrysum thianschanicum Regel | Khorugh, Badakhshon Province, Tajikistan | Aerial parts | Pentylcurcumene (21.6%), β-selinene (6.4%) | [579] |
Helichrysum trilineatum DC. | Sanremo, Italy | Aerial parts | Sandaracopimarinol (17.7%), α-pinene (11.5%), bicyclogermacrene (10.7%), spathulenol (7.2%), abieta-7,13-diene (6.1%), germacrene D (5.5%) | [576] |
and β-phellandrene (6.5%) [581]. The major components of the floral essential oil, on the other hand, were limonene (12.9%), geranyl isovalerate (9.3%), geranyl 2-methylbutyrate (7.0%), and α-muurolol (5.5%).
3.1.40. Launea Endl.
The major components in the essential oil from the aerial parts of Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Hook.f. from Algeria were palmitic acid (17.3%), β-selinene (9.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.9%), (E)-β-farnesene (7.6%), and α-cadinol (5.9%) [582]. The leaf essential oil of Launaea taraxacifolia (Willd.) Amin ex C. Jeffrey from Ipara, Badagry, Nigeria, was dominated by limonene (48.8%) along with sabinene (18.8%) and citronellal (11.0%) [583].
3.1.41. Liatris Gaertn. ex Schreb.
The aerial parts of Liatris spicata (L.) Willd., cultivated in southern Alabama, yielded an essential oil with germacrene D (23.7%), myrcene (13.7%), α-pinene (8.1%), and caryophyllene oxide (5.9%) as the major components [580].
3.1.42. Matricaria L.
Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L., syn. Matricaria recutita L.) is the most important species of the genus, and its phytochemistry and pharmacology have been reviewed several times [584–589]. At least six chemotypes of chamomile, based on essential oil composition, have been described: (1) (E)-β-farnesene, (2) bisabolone oxide A, (3) α-bisabolol oxide A/α-bisabolol oxide B/cis-bicycloether, (4) α-bisabolol oxide B/α-bisabolol oxide A/chamazulene, (5) α-bisabolol, and (6) α-bisabolol oxide A (Fig, 5) [590]. The essential oil compositions of Matricaria aurea (Loefl.) Sch.Bip. have also been reviewed recently [30]. The common constituents of M. aurea essential oil are bisabolol oxide, α-bisabolol, and farnesene. Matricaria decipiens K. Koch from Taleghan, Iran, produced an essential oil from its aerial parts, composed of (Z,Z)-matricaria ester (33.3%), 1,8-cineole (10.5%), (Z,E)-matricaria ester (8.6%), camphor (6.5%), (E,Z)-
Figure 5. Dendrogram based on hierarchical cluster analysis of Matricaria chamomilla essential oil compositions.
matricaria ester (6.0%), and (E)-β-farnesene (5.6%) [591]. The major components in the essential oil of Matricaria sevanensis (Manden.) Rauschert aerial parts from Osmaniye Province, Türkiye, were bisabolene oxide A (50.3%), (Z)-β-farnesene (24.2%), and α-bisabolol oxide A (8.1%) [592].
3.1.43. Mauranthemum Vogt & Oberpr.
The floral essential oil of Mauranthemum paludosum (Poir.) Vogt & Oberpr. from Rades, Tunisia, was largely composed of pentacosane (26.9%), palmitic acid (19.1%), caryophyllene oxide (7.6%), and tricosane (5.2%) [581].
3.1.44. Mikania Willd.
Although 456 species of Mikania [33] have been recognized, only a few have been examined for their essential oil content. The pharmacology and phytochemistry of Mikania species have been previously reviewed [593–596]. Recent reports on the chemical composition of Mikania species are summarized in Table 41.
3.1.45. Montanoa Cerv.
There are 29 species of Montanoa distributed in the Neotropics [33]. The essential oils of several species have been characterized (Table 42).
3.1.46. Neomirandea R.M. King & H. Rob.
The Neomirandea genus comprises 32 Neotropical species [33]. Only Neomirandea angularis (B.L. Rob.) R.M. King & H. Rob. from Monteverde, Costa Rica, has been investigated for its essential oil composition. The leaf essential oil was dominated by the sesquiterpene hydrocarbons germacrene D (83.2%) and β-selinene (10.5 %) [611].
3.1.47. Ormenis (Cass.) Cass. (syn. Cladanthus Cass.)
The most important species in terms of essential oil is Ormenis mixta (L.) Dumort. (syn. Cladanthus mixtus (L.) Chevall.), also known as Moroccan chamomile. The essential oil compositions and biological activities of Ormenis (Cladanthus) have been reviewed [612–614]. The essential oil yields and chemical compositions vary widely and are strongly dependent on geographical location (Table 43) [612, 615].
3.1.48. Parthenium L.
Of the 12 recognized species of Parthenium [33], only two have been examined for their essential oils. Commercially, Parthenium argentatum A. Gray (guayule) is the most important species as an alternative source of rubber [624]. Parthenium hysterophorus L. is a noxious weed outside its natural range, but it has also shown medicinal potential [31]. The major essential oil components of P. argentatum and P. hysterophorus are summarized in Table 44.
Table 41. Chemical compositions of Mikania essential oils.
Mikania species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Mikania cordifolia (L.f.) Willd. | State of Paraná, Brazil | Aerial parts | Limonene (19.2%), β-pinene (17.8%), α-pinene (16.0%), myrcene (13.3%), bicyclogermacrene (8.8%), (E)-γ-bisabolene (5.4%) | [597] |
Mikania glomerata Spreng. | Ribeirão Preto, State of São Paulo, Brazil | Leaves | Coumarin (7.3-28.3%), spathulenol (17.3-20.8%), caryophyllene oxide (8.0-10.9%) | [598] |
Mikania glomerata Spreng. | Paulinia, State of São Paulo, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (46.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (20.4%), bicyclogermacrene (5.8%) | [599] |
Mikania involucrata Hook. & Arn. | Penha, Santa Catarina, Brazil | Leaves | Caryophyllene oxide (27.7%), limonene (12.7%), spathulenol (8.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.8%), 1-epi-cubenol (5.4%) | [600] |
Mikania laevigata Sch.Bip. ex Baker | Oratórios, Minas Gerais, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (44.4%), bicyclogermacrene (15.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (12.8%), α-pinene (6.1%), | [601] |
Mikania laevigata Sch.Bip. ex Baker | Oratórios, Minas Gerais, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (40.3-35.3%), bicyclogermacrene (15.7-19.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.0-9.0%), α-pinene (5.9-10.3%), spathulenol (4.9-8.9%) | [602] |
Mikania laevigata Sch.Bip. ex Baker | Paulinia, State of São Paulo, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (40.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (14.3%), bicyclogermacrene (10.6%), β-pinene (8.1%), α-pinene (7.9%) | [599] |
Mikania micrantha Kunth | Vietnam | Leaves | β-Cubebene (11.3%), germacrene D (11.0%), α-zingiberene (10.8%) | [603] |
Mikania micrantha Kunth | Vietnam | Stems | Limonene (17.0%), β-pinene (7.9%), α-zingiberene (7.3%) | [603] |
Mikania micrantha Kunth | Assam, India | Flowers | Isoledene (16.0%), δ-cadinene (11.2%), debromofiliformin (9.4%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (9.1%), β-bisabolene (7.4%), germacrene-D (5.8%), zingiberene (5.3%) | [604] |
Mikania scandens (L.) Willd. | Muksudpur, Gopalganj, Bangladesh | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (17.0%), δ-cadinene (12.2%), α-cubebene (11.3%), caryophyllene oxide (7.7%) | [605] |
Table 42. Chemical compositions of Montanoa essential oils.
Montanoa species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Montanoa bipinnatifida (Kunth) K. Koch | Doqqi, Giza Governorate, Egypt | Leaves | Germacrene D (37.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (30.7%) | [606] |
Montanoa guatemalensis B.L. Rob. & Greenm. | Monteverde, Costa Rica | Leaves | Cyclocolorenone (14.5-27.5%), limonene (8.1-21.3%), α-selinene (0.0-21.2%), trans-muurola-4(14),5-diene (0.0-16.8%), β-cadinene (0.0-13.3%), β-selinene (0.0-14.8%), α-pinene (3.2-8.6%), selina-3,7(11)-diene (3.6-7.7%) | [607] |
Montanoa quadrangularis Sch.Bip. | Mérida, Venezuela | Flowers | Limonene + β-phellandrene (27.8%), trans-sabinol (23.5%), myrcene (13.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.9%) | [608] |
Montanoa quadrangularis Sch.Bip. | Mérida, Venezuela | Leaves | Myrcene (26.2%), limonene + β-phellandrene (16.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (14.7%), sabinene (8.9%), 1,8-cineole (5.7%), α-thujene (5.2%) | [608] |
Montanoa quadrangularis Sch.Bip. | Mérida, Venezuela | Stems | Sabionene (22.3%), myrcene (13.6%), limonene + β-phellandrene (12.2%), β-pinene (9.9%), α-thujene (9.2%), terpinen-4-ol (5.8%), germacrene D (5.7%) | [608] |
Montanoa speciosa K. Koch | Mérida, Yucatan, México | Flowers | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (17.9%), δ-cadinene (9.3%), caryophyllene oxide (8.7%), germacrene D (5.8%) | [609] |
Montanoa speciosa K. Koch | Mérida, Yucatan, México | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (20.7%), δ-cadinene (9.9%), caryophyllene oxide (9.5%), germacrene D (6.9%) | [609] |
Montanoa tomentosa Cerv. | Guanajuato, Mexico | Leaf glandular trichomes | β-Eudesmol (26.8-56.1%), valencene (25.3-45.0%) | [610] |
Table 43. Chemical compositions of Ormenis (Cladanthus) essential oils.
Ormenis species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Ormenis eriolepis Coss. ex Maire | Morocco | Aerial parts | Isobutyl angelate (22.0-22.4%), isobutyl isobutyrate (20.8-21.2%), α-pinene (5.8-9.2%), 2-methylbutyl angelate (7.2-7.7%), 2.-methylbutyl isobutyrate (5.7-5.8%), 2-methylallyl isobutyrate (5.3-5.5%) | [616] |
Ormenis mixta Dumort. | Morocco | Flowers | Camphor (14.4-29.0%), 2-tridecanone (21.5%), (E)-β-farnesene (8.3%) | [617] |
Ormenis mixta Dumort. | Morocco | Leaves | (E)-Nerolidol (44.1%), camphor (11-33%), myrcene (12.4%) | [617] |
Ormenis mixta Dumort. | Maâmoura region, Morocco | Aerial parts | Santolina alcohol (37.5%), (E)-β-farnesene (6.2%), τ-muurolol (6.0%) | [618] |
Ormenis mixta Dumort. | Souk Had, Morocco | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (20.8%), α-pinene (16.1%) | [619] |
Ormenis mixta Dumort. | Sidi Slimane, Morocco | Aerial parts | (E)-Nerolidol (13.9%), farnesa-1,7(14),10-triene (5.8%), 6,9-epoxyfarnesa-1,7(14),10-trien-3-ol (5.4%) | [619] |
Ormenis mixta Dumort. | Bouznika, Morocco | Aerial parts | 2-Methyl-2-(E)-butenyl methacrylate a (32.0-35.2%), ar-curcumene (13.0-14.0%) | [620] |
Ormenis mixta Dumort. | Oujda, Morocco | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Farnesene (35.5-50.5%) | [620] |
Ormenis mixta Dumort. | Taounate region, Morocco | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (11.5%), 1,8-cineole (10.3%), (Z)-methyl isoeugenol (9.0%), butyric acid (8.5%), δ-elemene (5.5%) | [621] |
Ormenis mixta Dumort. subsp. multicaulis Maire | Kénitra, Morocco | Aerial parts | Santolina alcohol (24.1-47.6%), τ-muurolol (5.5%), α-cadinol (5.4%) | [622] |
Ormenis mixta Dumort. subsp. multicaulis Maire | Salé, Morocco | Aerial parts | Santolina alcohol (44.7-55.1%), τ-muurolol (5.7%), α-cadinol (5.2%) | [622] |
Ormenis multicaulis Braun-Blanq. & Maire | Commercial, Morocco | Flowers | α-Pinene (24.9%), santolina alcohol (15.2%), 1,8-cineole (7.2%), δ-elemene b (6.7%), limonene (6.0%) | [520] |
Ormenis scariosa Litard. & Maire | Tizi n’Ticha, Morocco | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (13.2%), α-pinene (11.9%), sabinene (10.2%), terpinen-4-ol (8.8%), p-cymene (8.5%), α-phellandrene (5.2%) | [614] |
Ormenis scariosa Litard. & Maire | Ait M’hamed, Morocco | Aerial parts | p-Cymene c (11.3%), caryophyllene oxide (9.9%), γ-terpinene (8.3%), sabinene (7.1%), elemol (6.5%), terpinolene (5.6%), spathulenol (5.0%) | [623] |
Ormenis scariosa Litard. & Maire | Azilal, Morocco | Aerial parts | Sabinene (15.6-23.8%), α-pinene (12.2-17.7%), terpinen-4-ol (4.6-11.0%) | [615] |
a This compound is not found in the Dictionary of Natural Products [98]; its identification may be incorrect. b Isomer was not identified, but RI is consistent with δ-elemene. | ||||
Table 44. Chemical compositions of Parthenium essential oils.
Parthenium species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Parthenium argentatum A. Gray | Tehran, Iran | Flowers | α-Pinene (27.2%), β-phellandrene (17.0%), γ-eudesmol (11.3%), β-pinene (10.0%), β-eudesmol (9.0%) | [625] |
Parthenium argentatum A. Gray | CIRAD, Montpellier, France | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (22.5-37.0%), sabinene (12.5-14.0%), limonene (8.1-9.1%), bornyl acetate (4.3-7.0%) | [626] |
Parthenium argentatum A. Gray | Riverside, California, USA | Leaves | α-Pinene (16.7%), β-pinene (13.6%), terpinolene (9.2%), sabinene (6.5%), limonene (5.9%) | [627] |
Parthenium hysterophorus L. | Lavras, Minas Gerais state, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (35.9%), (E)-β-ocimene (8.5%) | [628] |
Parthenium hysterophorus L. | Nghe An Province, Vietnam | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (23.2%), myrcene (14.4%), (E)-β-caryophyllene, (12.6%), | [629] |
3.1.49. Phania DC.
Phania is a small genus comprising six species restricted to the Caribbean (Cuba and Dominican Republic) [33]. The essential oil of Phania cajalbanica Borhidi & O. Muñiz from Cuba was dominated by δ-elemene (25.9%) and 1,7-di-epi-β-cedrene (20.8%) [630]. The major components of Phania matricarioides Griseb. essential oil from Cuba, were contained lavandulyl acetate (40.1%), thymyl isobutyrate (13.9%), 8,9-dehydrothymul isobutyrate (5.9%), and lavandulol (5.5%) [631].
3.1.50. Polymnia Kalm.
As far as we are aware, the essential oils have been reported from only two species of Polymnia. There are two reports of Polymnia canadensis L. essential oils from north Alabama, USA. The major components were germacrene D (63.6%), (E)-β-caryophyllene
(15.9%), and bicyclogermacrene (5.4%) from Monte Sano, Alabama [632]; germacrene D (44.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (14.8%), and kauran-16β-ol (5.4%) from Blue Spring, Alabama [632]; and α-phellandrene (28.3%), α-pinene (19.7%), and germacrene D (11.4%) from Hampton Cove, Alabama [13]. The essential oil from the tubers of Polymnia sonchifolia Poepp. was rich in α-pinene (33.5%), neo-abienol (15.7%), cis-abienol (15.4%), and trans-abienol (7.0%) [633].
3.1.51. Porophyllum Guett
The genus Porophyllum comprises of 32 species, which are native to the New World [33]. The phytochemical and pharmacological properties of Porophyllum species have been reviewed [634]. The essential oils of Porophyllum species are summarized in Table 45.
3.1.52. Pulicaria Gaertn.
The compositions and biological activities of Pulicaria essential oils was reviewed in 2021 [646]. Essential oil compositions of Pulicaria species recently reported are summarized in Table 46.
3.1.53. Rudbeckia L.
Of the 27 species of Rudbeckia recognized by the World Flora Online [33], only three species have been examined in terms of essential oils, Rudbeckia fulgida Aiton, Rudbeckia hirta L., and Rudbeckia laciniata L. (Table 47).
3.1.54. Santolina L.
There are around 21 species of Santolina, which are native to Europe, North Africa, and the Caucasus [33]. D’Auria and co-workers presented a summary of Santolina chamaecyparissus L. essential oil compositions in 2023 [665], while Sarri and co-authors reviewed the essential oil compositions of Santolina rosmarinifolia L. until 2021 [666]. A summary of the essential oil compositions of Santolina species is presented in Table 48.
3.1.55. Saussurea DC.
Currently, 436 species of Saussurea have been recognized [33]. The essential oil compositions of several species of Saussurea have been reviewed [672], including Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. [673–675], Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch. Bip. [676–678], Saussurea medusa Maxim. [679], Saussurea involucrata (Kar. & Kir.) Sch. Bip., Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Edgew. [680], as well as Saussurea controversa DC., Saussurea latifolia Ledeb., Saussurea parviflora (Poir.) DC., and Saussurea salicifolia DC. [681]. Recent reports on the essential oil compositions of Saussurea species are summarized in Table 49.
Table 45. Chemical compositions of Porophyllum essential oils.
Porophyllum species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Porophyllum angustissimum Gardner | Balneário Pinhal, Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (37.7%), limonene (14.6%), myrcene (12.0%), (E)-β-ocimene (10.2%), (3Z)-undecene (5.5%) | [635] |
Porophyllum curticeps Malme | Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil | Aerial parts | Limonene (28.2%), myrcene (22.6%), (2E)-dodecadienal (14.7%), decanal (11.5%), β-pinene (10.6%) | [635] |
Porophyllum gracile Benth. | Ottawa, Ontario, Canada | Leaves | Myrcene (40.6%), sabinene (20.5%), β-cubebene (9.1%) | [636] |
Porophyllum lanceolatum DC. | Barão do Triunfo, Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil | Aerial parts | Decanal (60.2%), (2E,6Z)-dodecadienal (12.1%) | [635] |
Porophyllum linaria (Cav.) DC. | Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, Oaxaca, México | Leaves | Myrcene (41.9%), limonene (20.3%), estragole (20.0%), 1-undecene (8.0%) | [637] |
Porophyllum linaria (Cav.) DC. | San Andrés Cholula, Puebla, Mexico | Aerial parts | Linoleic acid (29.5%), phytol (25.5%), palmitic acid (18.4%) | [638] |
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. | Viçosa, Minas Gerais state, Brazil | Flowers | β-Phellandrene (44.9%), (Z)-β-ocimene (9.6%), α-pinene (6.3%) | [639] |
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. | Viçosa, Minas Gerais state, Brazil | Leaves | β-Phellandrene (56.9%), α-pinene (8.0%), (Z)-β-ocimene (6.7%) | [639] |
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. | Cochabamba valley, Bolivia | Aerial parts | Sabinene (64.1%), terpinen-4-ol (10.3%) | [640] |
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. | Barão do Triunfo, Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Ocimene (51.3%), myrcene (9.8%), perillene (6.1%) | [635] |
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. | Mérida, Venezuela | Aerial parts | Limonene + β-phellandrene (50.3%), sabinene (20.2%) | [641] |
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. | Bingerville, Côte d'Ivoire | Aerial parts | Myrcene (35.5%), γ-terpinene (26.4%), β-pinene (21.7%), limonene (9.3%) | [642] |
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. subsp. macrocephalum (DC.) R.R.Johnson | São Paulo, Brazil | Aerial parts | Limonene (83.5%), 1-undecene (5.4%) | [643] |
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. subsp. macrocephalum (DC.) R.R.Johnson | São Paulo, Brazil | Aerial parts | 1-Undecene (29.0%), limonene (27.4%), α-iso-comene (5.7%) | [644] |
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. subsp. macrocephalum (DC.) R.R.Johnson | Cajamarca, Perú | Aerial parts | Limonene (63.9%), 1-undecene (10.2%) and (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.1%) | [645] |
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. subsp. ruderale | São Paulo, Brazil | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Ocimene (54.9%), limonene (25.2%), 1-β-pinene (10.1%) | [643] |
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. subsp. ruderale | São Paulo, Brazil | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Ocimene (58.6%), limonene (17.4%), 1-undecene (13.7%) | [644] |
Table 46. Chemical compositions of Pulicaria essential oils.
Pulicaria species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Pulicaria arabica Cass. | M’sala, Algeria | Aerial parts | τ-Cadinol (23.9%), δ-cadinene (21.1%), α-cadinol (19.8%), germacrene D-4-ol (8.4%) | [187] |
Pulicaria arabica Cass. | Bordj Bou Arreridj, Algeria | Aerial parts | α-Cadinol (35.1%), δ-cadinene (22.5%), τ-muurolol (12.6%), τ-cadinol (11.8%), α-muurolene (5.9%) | [647] |
Pulicaria arabica Cass. | Riyadh city, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | Carvotanacetone (36.9%), carvomenthone (27.2%) | [648] |
Pulicaria arabica Cass. | Al-shadeeda, Alkharj province, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | τ-Cadinol (38.6%), carvotanacetone (10.3%), caryophyllene oxide (5.3%), palmitic acid (5.3%) | [649] |
Pulicaria burchardii Hutch. subsp. burchardii | Chichaoua, Morocco | Aerial parts | 1-Oxobisabolone (65.1%), 1,8-cineole (13.9%) | [650] |
Pulicaria crispa Sch. Bip. | Riyadh, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | Caryophyllene oxide (34.0%), modheph-2-ene (23.3%), geranyl isovalerate (6.7%) | [651] |
Pulicaria crispa Sch. Bip. | Dead Sea region, Jordan | Flowers | Chrysanthenone (34.7%), p-cymen-8-ol (24.6%) | [652] |
Pulicaria crispa Sch. Bip. | Dead Sea region, Jordan | Leaves | Chrysanthenone (29.2%), p-cymen-8-ol (19.4%), vanillin (10.9%), 7-epi-α-eudesmol (9.8%) | [652] |
Pulicaria crispa Sch. Bip. | Kenadsa, Algeria | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (40.1%), caryophyllene oxide (11.1%) | [653] |
Pulicaria crispa Sch. Bip. | Al-henniya, Alkharj province, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | τ-Cadinol (53.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (10.8%) | [649] |
Pulicaria dysenterica (L.) Bernh. | Paklenik, Karaula, Olovo Municipality, Bosnia and Herzegovina | Aerial parts | Caryophyllene oxide (14.9%), (E)-nerolidol (9.2%), nerol (5.9%) | [14] |
Pulicaria dysenterica (L.) Bernh. | Skrapež, Serbia | Aerial parts | 3-Methoxycuminyl isobutyrate (31.1%), neryl isobutyrate (22.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.6%), neryl 2-methylbutyrate (5.5%) | [654] |
Pulicaria dysenterica (L.) Bernh. | Niš, Serbia | Aerial parts | 3-Methoxycuminyl isobutyrate (25.5%), neryl isobutyrate (16.4%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.2%) | [654] |
Pulicaria gnaphaloides (Vent.) Boiss. | Dalfard, Kerman province, Iran | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (17.7%), α-terpineol (7.9%), eudesma-4(15),7-dien-1β-ol (7.2%), terpinen-4-ol (5.7%) | [655] |
Pulicaria gnaphaloides (Vent.) Boiss. | Khabr, Kerman province, Iran | Aerial parts | Terpinen-4-ol (20.3%), 1,8-cineole (11.8%), α-terpineol (9.0%), cedr-8(15)-en-9α-ol (7.5%), eudesma-4(15),7-dien-1β-ol (7.1%) | [655] |
Pulicaria gnaphaloides (Vent.) Boiss. | Koohpayeh, Kerman province, Iran | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (22.8%), terpinen-4-ol (11.2%), α-terpineol (11.2%), eudesma-4(15),7-dien-1β-ol (5.5%), geraniol (5.2%) | [655] |
Pulicaria gnaphaloides (Vent.) Boiss. | Mayduk, Kerman province, Iran | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (24.0%), α-terpineol (11.5%), cedr-8(15)-en-9α-ol (11.1%), geraniol (7.5%) | [655] |
Pulicaria gnaphaloides (Vent.) Boiss. | Sarcheshmeh, Kerman province, Iran | Aerial parts | Citronellyl acetate (23.5%), cis-chrysanthenyl acetate (19.9%), α-terpineol (8.7%), terpinen-4-ol (5.6%) | [655] |
Pulicaria incisa (Lam.) DC. | Neve Zonar, Israel | Aerial parts | cis-Chrysanthenol (52.7%), xanthoxylin (15.4%), carvotanacetone (11.7%) | [656] |
Pulicaria incisa (Lam.) DC. subsp. candolleana E. Gamal-Eldin | Jabal Al-Lawz, Tabuk province, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | Linalool (33.0%), chrysanthenone (10.3%), eugenol (8.9%) cis-chrysanthenol (8.0%), (Z)-jasmone (5.7%) | [657] |
Pulicaria jaubertii E. Gamal-Eldin | Sana’a, Yemen | Aerial parts | Carvotanacetone (20.7%), linolenic acid (9.6%), 1-hexacosanol (5.6%), palmitic acid (5.1%) | [658] |
Pulicaria mauritanica Batt. | Kasr Igoudman Aghbalou N’Kerdous, Morocco | Aerial parts | Carvotanacetone (67.9%) | [659] |
Pulicaria odora (L.) Rchb. | Peloritani mountains, Sicily | Aerial parts | (2E)-Hexenal (14.8%), thymyl isobutyrate (11.4%), α-cadinol (5.7%) | [660] |
Pulicaria petiolaris Jaub. & Spach | Sana’a, Yemen | Aerial parts | (10E,12Z)-Linoleic acid (10.2%), palmitic acid (6.2%), piperitone (5.8%), linoleic acid (5.5%) | [658] |
Pulicaria somalensis O. Hoffm. | Al-senaiyya, Alkharj province, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | Intermedeol (15.9%), α-cadinol (9.7%), γ-eudesmol (9.1%), α-eudesmol (5.2%) | [649] |
Pulicaria undulata (L.) C.A. Mey. | Wadi Alsahbaa, Alkharj, Riyadh region, Saudi Arabia | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (21.1%), γ-terpinene (7.7%), iso-shyobunone (7.7%), 6-epi-shyobunol (6.5%), α-pinene (5.1%) | [661] |
Pulicaria undulata (L.) C.A. Mey. | Wadi Hagoul, Eastern Desert, Egypt | Aerial parts | Spathulenol (30.9%), hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (18.1%), α-bisabolol (6.3%) | [661] |
Pulicaria undulata (L.) C.A. Mey. | Ardestan, Isfahan province, Iran | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (26.0%), α-pinene (12.5%), camphor (8.4%), camphene (5.0%) | [662] |
Table 47. Chemical compositions of Rudbeckia essential oils.
Rudbeckia species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Rudbeckia fulgida Aiton | Huntsville, Alabama, USA | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (30.1%), δ-cadinene (17.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (10.0%), γ-muurolene (8.9%), (E)-β-ocimene (6.2%), (2E)-hexenal (6.0%) | [663] |
Rudbeckia hirta L. | Bucharest, Romania | Flowers | β-Phellandrene (26.0%), germacrene D (21.6%), α-pinene (16.3%), sabinene (12.0%) | [664] |
Rudbeckia hirta L. | Huntsville, Alabama, USA | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (23.6%), (2E)-hexenal (20.2%), δ-cadinene (16.2%), (E)-β-ocimene (15.2%), γ-muurolene (8.9%) | [663] |
Rudbeckia laciniata L. | Monte Sano, Alabama, USA | Aerial parts | Limonene (58.9%), α-pinene (10.2%), β-pinene (9.2%), myrcene (5.3%), | [13] |
Table 48. Chemical compositions of Santolina essential oils.
Santolina species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Santolina africana Jord. & Fourr. | El Krib Sud region, Tunisia | Stems | Artemisia ketone (44.3%), iso-borneol (26.6%) | [667] |
Santolina africana Jord. & Fourr. | Taounate Province, Morocco | Stems | Artemisia ketone (35.4%), santolina alcohol (16.2%), iso- borneol (6.1%), β-oplopenone (5.1%) | [667] |
Santolina chamaecyparissus L. | Siedlce, Poland | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (25.9%), β-phellandrene (18.7%), vulgarone B (11.6%), myrcene (9.2%), β-pinene (6.1%) | [4] |
Santolina chamaecyparissus L. | Commercial, Spain | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (26.6%), β-phellandrene (21.7%), myrcene (9.7%), sabinene (7.2%), β-pinene (6.9%), longiverbenone (5.9%) | [520] |
Santolina chamaecyparissus L. | Osmaniye province, Türkiye | Aerial parts | Artemisia ketone (39.8%), camphor (17.7%), β-phellandrene (8.0%) and β-bisabolene (7.3%). | [668] |
Santolina etrusca (Lacaita) Marchi & D'Amato | Acquapendente, Italy | Aerial parts | Viridiflorol (24.0%), 1,8-cineole (9.2%), β-pinene (8.8%), terpinen-4-ol (8.1%), pinocarveol (6.3%) | [665] |
Santolina impressa Hoffmanns. & Link | Portugal | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (12.6%), β-phellandrene (10.4%), yomogi alcohol (8.8%), limonene (8.1%), camphor (7.1%), 1,8-cineole (6.2%), myrcene (6.0%) | [669] |
Santolina insularis (Gennari ex Fiori) Arrigoni | Nebida, Sardinia, Italy | Aerial parts | β-Phellandrene (22.6%), myrcene (11.4%), artemisia ketone (7.6%), ar-curcumene (7.1%), β-pinene (5.4%), γ-curcumene (5.0%) | [670] |
Santolina rosmarinifolia L. | Palmela, Setúbal, Portugal | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (29.6%), borneol (16.9%), myrcene (15.4%), limonene (5.7%) | [671] |
Santolina rosmarinifolia L. | Hodna area, Algeria | Aerial parts | Capillene (32.8%), 1,8-cineole (15.1%), myrcene (14.0%) | [666] |
3.1.56. Schizogyne Cass.
There are only three species of Schizogyne, all of which are endemic to the Canary Islands: Schizogyne glaberrima DC., Schizogyne obtusifolia Cass., and Schizogyne sericea (L.f.) DC. [33]. The major essential oil components of S. glaberrima and S. sericea are summarized in Table 50. To date, the essential oil composition of S. obtusifolia has not been reported.
Table 49. Chemical compositions of Saussurea essential oils.
Saussurea species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Saussurea amara (L.) DC. | Qianshan, China | Aerial parts | Caryophyllene oxide (12.4%), δ-selinene (9.5%), trans-β-elemene (8.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.6%), β-selinene (5.6%), δ-guaiene (5.1%) | [682] |
Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. | Not reported | Roots | 1,8,11,14-Heptadecatetraene (40.9%), trans-β-elemene (9.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.2%), | [683] |
Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. | Lahaul & Spiti, Himachal Pradesh, India | Roots | Linoleic acid (24.7%), valerenol (11.8%), erementhin (10.7%), α-costol (6.6%), germacrene B (6.7%), (Z)-trans-α-bergamotyl acetate (6.7%), γ-costol (5.5%) | [684] |
Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch. Bip. | Cairo, Egypt (market) | Roots | Velleral (22.5%), eremanthin (23.7%), α-selinene (9.7%), dehydrosaussurea lactone (6.9%), costunolide (6.9%) | [685] |
Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch. Bip. | Dronagiri village, Uttarkhand, India | Roots | Dehydrocostus lactone (68.8%), dihydrodehydrocostus lactone (20.4%) | [686] |
Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch. Bip. | Bordj Bou Arreridj, Algeria (market) | Roots | Dehydrocostus lactone (55.4%), costunolide (8.9%), dehydrosaussurea lactone (5.6%) | [687] |
Saussurea nivea Turcz. | Beijing, China | Aerial parts | Limonene (15.5%), caryophyllene oxide (7.6%), linalool (7.2%), α-pinene (6.4%), β-pinene (5.7%), spathulenol (5.0%) | [688] |
Saussurea pulchella (Fisch.) Fisch. | Primorsky Krai, Shkotovsky District, Russia | Aerial parts | Caryophyllene oxide (30.8%), germacrene D (24.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (9.1%) | [689] |
3.1.57. Smallanthus Mack.
Currently, the World Flora Online recognizes 21 species of Smallanthus [33]. Of these, the essential oils of five species have been reported (Table 51).
3.1.58. Solidago L.
Solidago is a large genus comprising 156 species [33]. Of these, Solidago canadensis L. seems to be the most important with respect to essential oil characterization, which has been reviewed [13, 699]. The essential oil compositions of S. canadensis and other Solidago species are summarized in Table 52.
3.1.59. Sphaeranthus L.
The phytochemistry and biological activities of Sphaeranthus indicus L. have been reviewed [725, 726]. The major essential oil components of Sphaeranthus species are summarized in Table 53.
3.1.60. Sphagneticola O. Hoffm.
There are only four species of Sphagneticola (syn. Thelechitonia), namely Sphagneticola brachycarpa (Baker) Pruski, Sphagneticola calendulacea (L.) Pruski, Sphagneticola gracilis (Rich.) Pruski, and Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski [33]. Apparently, only S. trilobata has been investigated for its essential oil composition (Table 54). The phytochemistry and pharmacology of S. trilobata have been reviewed [732].
Table 50. Chemical compositions of Schizogyne essential oils.
Schizogyne species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Schizogyne glaberrima DC. | Barranco de Mogán, Gran Canaria | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (64.9%), limonene (25.2%), α-phellandrene (5.2%) | [690] |
Schizogyne sericea (L.f.) DC. | La Barranquera, Tenerife | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (34.0%), isobornyl acetate (11.5%) | [691] |
Schizogyne sericea (L.f.) DC. | Palm Mar, Tenerife | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (48.0%), limonene (5.6%) | [692] |
Schizogyne sericea (L.f.) DC. | Fasnia, Tenerife | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (43.0%), β-pinene (5.3%) | [692] |
Schizogyne sericea (L.f.) DC. | La Barranquera, Tenerife | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (57.0%), isobornyl acetate (5.1%) | [692] |
Schizogyne sericea (L.f.) DC. | Montaña de Guaza, Tenerife | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (45.0%), β-pinene (6.0%), isobornyl acetate (5.3%) | [693] |
Schizogyne sericea (L.f.) DC. | Palm Mar, Tenerife | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (48.0%), isobornyl acetate (11.0%), limonene (5.6%) | [694] |
Schizogyne sericea (L.f.) DC. | Los Roques, Tenerife | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (43.0%), β-pinene (5.3%) | [694] |
Schizogyne sericea (L.f.) DC. | La Barranquera, Tenerife | Aerial parts | p-Cymene (57.0%), isobornyl acetate (5.1%) | [694] |
Table 51. Chemical compositions of Smallanthus essential oils.
Smallanthus species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Smallanthus maculatus (Cav.) H. Rob. | San José, Costa Rica | Leaves | α-Pinene (32.9%), germacrene D (13.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (10.7%), β-pinene (7.1%), camphene (5.4%) | [695] |
Smallanthus parviceps (S.F. Blake) H. Rob. | Ayacucho, Peru | Leaves | α-Phellandrene (18.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.7%), p-cymene (8.1%), β-curcumene (7.3%) | [696] |
Smallanthus quichensis (J.M. Coult.) H. Rob. | Turrialba Volcano, Costa Rica | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (35.5%), p-cymene (11.5%), β-phellandrene (9.2%), α-phellandrene (9.0%), limonene (5.8%) | [697] |
Smallanthus quichensis (J.M. Coult.) H. Rob. | Turrialba Volcano, Costa Rica | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (64.5%), 1,8-cineole (9.7%) | [697] |
Smallanthus sonchifolius (Poepp.) H. Rob. | Duitama, Colombia | Leaves | Sabinene (40.8%), germacrene D (15.4%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (9.9%), terpinen-4-ol (5.5%) | [698] |
Smallanthus uvedalia (L.) Mack. | Monte Sano, Alabama, USA | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (24.5%), caryophyllene oxide (19.8%), 14-hydroxy-9-epi-(E)-caryophyllene (8.9%), 14-hydroxy-9-epi-(Z)-caryophyllene (8.2%) | [632] |
Smallanthus uvedalia (L.) Mack. | Blue Spring, Alabama, USA | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (16.5%), caryophyllene oxide (14.2%), spathulenol (7.5%), 14-hydroxy-9-epi-(E)-caryophyllene (6.2%) | [632] |
Smallanthus uvedalia (L.) Mack. | Monte Sano, Alabama, USA | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (65.6%), limonene (11.4%), β-pinene (6.0%) | [13] |
Smallanthus uvedalia (L.) Mack. | Caesars Head, South Carolina, USA | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (23.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (16.9%), perillene (14.5%), germacrene D (12.2%), limonene (6.1%) | [580] |
Table 52. Chemical compositions of Solidago essential oils.
Solidago species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Solidago caesia L. | Göttingen, Germany | Aerial parts | β-Cubebene (22.6%), α-pinene (8.7%), α-cadinol (7.7%), δ-cadinene (6.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.1%) | [700] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Bhimtal, Kumaon, India | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (56.7-75.5%), limonene (0.2-12.5%) | [701] |
Solidago canadensis L. | L’ubotice, Slovakia | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (34.9%), limonene (12.5%), α-pinene (11.6%), trans-β-elemene (7.1%), bornyl acetate (6.3%) | [702] |
Solidago canadensis L. | El-Mansoureya, Giza, Egypt | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (9.86-29.47%), α-pinene (3.38-29.17%), γ-cadinene (0.39-20.36%), myrcene (2.98-13.74%), limonene (4.81-11.47%) | [703] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Hampton Cove, Alabama, USA | Aerial parts | Myrcene (20.3%), bornyl acetate (14.4%), sabinene (14.3%), α-pinene (13.9%), germacrene D (10.7%) | [13] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Ljubljana, Slovenia | Flowers | α-Pinene (33.1%), limonene (21.5%), germacrene D (10.4%) | [704] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Szentlőrinc, Hungary | Flowers | α-Pinene (29.5%), bornyl acetate (12.2%), limonene (5.1%) | [705] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Bucharest, Romania | Flowers | α-Pinene (27.9%), germacrene D (13.2%), limonene (12.3%), bornyl acetate (5.8%) | [706] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Vilnius, Lithuania | Flowers | α-Pinene (18.1%), trans-verbenol (13.1%), bornyl acetate (11.9%), germacrene D (8.1%) | [707] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Moscow, Russia | Flowers | α-Pinene (61.2%), limonene (13.7%), bornyl acetate (8.5%) | [708] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Vilnius, Lithuania | Flowers | α-Pinene (18.8%), germacrene D (8.4%), bornyl acetate (6.0%) | [709] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Ljubljana, Slovenia | Leaves | Germacrene D (48.7%), cyclocolorenone (7.6%), bornyl acetate (5.5%) | [704] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Szentlőrinc, Hungary | Leaves | Bornyl acetate (13.4%), germacrene D (11.0%), cyclocolorenone (8.8%), eudesma-4(15).7-dien-1β-ol (7.1%) | [705] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Bhimtal, India | Leaves | Germacrene D (64.1%) | [710] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Vilnius, Lithuania | Leaves | Carvacrol (23.3%), β-cubebene (21.3%), germacrene D (19.6%), bornyl acetate (18.7%), α-pinene (8.6%) | [707] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Moscow, Russia | Leaves | Bornyl acetate (29.8%), germacrene D (16.6%) | [708] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Vilnius, Lithuania | Leaves | Germacrene D (19.5%), bornyl acetate (7.1%) | [709] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Szentlőrinc, Hungary | Roots | Limonene (32.7%), β-pinene (31.3%) | [705] |
Solidago canadensis L. | Bhimtal, India | Roots | Thymol (20.3%), α-copaene (6.3%), carvacrol (5.5%) | [711] |
Solidago chilensis Meyen | Pérez, Rosario, Argentina | Flowers | Limonene (13.4%), pumiloxide (12.7%), γ-cadinene (8.2%) | [712] |
Solidago chilensis Meyen | Pérez, Rosario, Argentina | Leaves | Pumiloxide (15.3%), γ-cadinene (5.6%) | [712] |
Solidago decurrens Lour. | Tonglu county, Zhejiang province, China | Leaves | δ-Elemene (30.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (15.4%), ledene oxide II (13.1%), β-elemene (6.4%) | [713] |
Solidago gigantea Aiton | Warsaw, Poland | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (21.6%), cyclocolorenone (8.1%), α-pinene (7.0%), α-gurjunene (6.1%) | [714] |
Solidago gigantea Aiton | Łódź, Poland | Aerial parts | Cyclocolorenone (32.4%), germacrene D (23.5%) | [714] |
Solidago glomerata Michx. | Göttingen, Germany | Aerial parts | β-Cubebene (16.4%), α-pinene (14.4%), limonene (9.2%), | [700] |
Solidago gigantea Aiton | Ljubljana, Slovenia | Flowers | Germacrene D (20.8%), α-pinene (7.6%) | [704] |
Solidago gigantea Aiton | Szentlőrinc, Hungary | Flowers | Bornyl acetate (11.4%), germacrene D (9.0%), α-pinene (8.1%), cyclocolorenone (6.4%) | [705] |
Solidago gigantea Aiton | Vilnius, Lithuania | Flowers | Germacrene D (11.2%), p-cymene (10.9%), α-pinene (10.7%), bornyl acetate (10.4%), isospathulenol (6.1%), spathulenol (5.0%) | [707] |
Solidago gigantea Aiton | Vilnius, Lithuania | Flowers | Germacrene D (16.7%) | [709] |
Solidago gigantea Aiton | Ljubljana, Slovenia | Leaves | Germacrene D (33.8%), bornyl acetate (9.1%) | [704] |
Solidago gigantea Aiton | Szentlőrinc, Hungary | Leaves | Cyclocolorenone (15.6%), bornyl acetate (13.7%), germacrene D (6.3%) | [705] |
Solidago gigantea Aiton | Vilnius, Lithuania | Leaves | Bornyl acetate (22.4%), β-cubebene (14.1%), spathulenol (6.7%), isospathulenol (6.3%), epoxyazulene (6.1%), germacrene D (5.9%) | [707] |
Solidago gigantea Aiton | Vilnius, Lithuania | Leaves | Germacrene D (15.5%), bornyl acetate (12.7%), | [709] |
Solidago gigantea Aiton | Szentlőrinc, Hungary | Roots | Germacrene D (14.4%), 1-nonene (13.1%) | [705] |
Solidago graminifolia (L.) Salisb. | Opole, Lower Silesia, Poland | Aerial parts | β-Phellandrene (23.1%), sabinene (18.3%), β-pinene (10.3%) | [715] |
Solidago litoralis Savi | Lucca, Tuscany, Italy | Aerial parts | Myrcene (65.1%), α-pinene (13.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.4%) | [716] |
Solidago nemoralis Aiton | Göttingen, Germany | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (25.5%), α-pinene (9.5%), limonene (8.7%), β-phellandrene (6.1%), sabinene (5.9%), myrcene (5.5%) | [700] |
Solidago odora Aiton | Worton, Maryland, USA | Flowers | Methyl chavicol (70.8%), myrcene (12.5%), methyl eugenol (5.8%) | [717] |
Solidago puberula Nutt. | Saint-Ludger-de-Milot, Québec, Canada | Aerial parts | α-Phellandrene (53.0%), (E,E)-α-farnesene (10.7%), α-pinene (9.4%), γ-terpinenea (6.0%), α-phellandrene (5.7%) | [718] |
Solidago rugosa Mill. | Göttingen, Germany | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (41.8%), sabinene (8.3%), terpinen-4-ol 7.0%) | [700] |
Solidago tortifolia Elliott | Göttingen, Germany | Aerial parts | Sabinene (18.3%), β-pinene (12.2%), β-cubebene (8.3%), α-calacorene (7.5%) α-pinene (6.6%), limonene (5.6%) | [700] |
Solidago virga-aurea L. var. asiatica Nakai | Koheung, Jeolanamdo, Korea | Aerial parts | Palmitic acid (29.2%), 7-hexyl eicosane (9.1%), spathulenol (7.7%), 3,8-dimethyl decane (6.5%) | [719] |
Solidago virga-aurea L. var. asiatica Nakai | Seoguipo, Jejudo, Korea | Aerial parts | δ-2-Carene (41.0%), α-copaene (10.8%), α-muurolene (5.8%) | [720] |
Solidago virgaurea L. | Almora, Uttarakhand, India | Aerial parts | Limonene (25.6%), α-humulene (12.2%), trans-dehydroxylinalool oxide (8.7%), benzyl salicylate (6.4%), 1,4-cineole (6.2%), humulene epoxide II (5.9%) | [721] |
Solidago virgaurea L. | Łódź, Poland | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (32.5%), myrcene (17.9%), limonene (14.1%), germacrene D (8.2%), β-pinene (5.4%) | [722] |
Solidago virgaurea L. | Warsaw, Poland | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (34.1%), germacrene D (17.0%), myrcene (9.0%), β-pinene (7.5%) | [722] |
Solidago virgaurea L. | Kielce, Poland | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (27.4%), germacrene D (13.5%), sabinene (11.8%), myrcene (7.8%), β-pinene (7.5%) | [722] |
Solidago virgaurea L. | Čačak, Serbia | Aerial parts | Cyclocolorenol (18.0-29.5%), germacrene D (7.7-9.4%), germacra-4(15),5,10(14)-trien-1α-ol (5.8-6.8%), spathulenol (4.8-5.9%), gymnomitrol (4.3-5.0%), bornyl acetate (3.1-5.2%) | [723] |
Solidago virgaurea L. | Zasavje, Slovenia | Flowers | α-Pinene (28.5%), germacrene D (8.4%) | [704] |
Solidago virgaurea L. | Vilnius, Lithuania | Flowers | α-Pinene (28.6%), β-copaene (12.2%), spathulenol (8.5%), trans-verbenol (6.6%) | [707] |
Solidago virgaurea L. | Novo-Mikhaylovskoe, Russia | Flowers | α-Pinene (36.5%), myrcene (14.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (10.5%), germacrene D (8.2%), limonene (6.4%) | [724] |
Solidago virgaurea L. | Vilnius, Lithuania | Flowers | Caryophyllene oxide (9.2%), humulene epoxide II (6.8%), germacrene D (6.7%), trans-verbenol (6.4%) | [709] |
Solidago virgaurea L. | Zasavje, Slovenia | Leaves | α-Pinene (13.1%), caryophyllene oxide (10.2%), humulene epoxide II (6.7%), spathulenol (6.5%), germacrene D (6.3%) | [704] |
Solidago virgaurea L. | Vilnius, Lithuania | Leaves | trans-Verbenol (24.6%), α-pinene (16.0%), caryophyllene oxide (9.0%), verbenone (7.3%) | [707] |
Solidago virgaurea L. | Vilnius, Lithuania | Leaves | Caryophyllene oxide (9.0%), trans-verbenol (6.3%), spathulenol (5.9%), humulene epoxide II (5.7%), α-pinene (5.2%) | [709] |
Table 53. Chemical compositions of Sphaeranthus essential oils.
Sphaeranthus species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Sphaeranthus africanus L. | Diên Lãm Commune, Pù Huèng Natural Reserve, Nghe An Province, Vietnam | Aerial parts | 1-Decen-3-ol (36.9%), α-pinene (21.0%), τ-cadinol (7.5%), 3-octyl propionate (5.6%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.5%) | [629] |
Sphaeranthus amaranthoides Burm.f. | Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, India | Leaves | Carvone (89.7%), 2-cyclohexen-1-ol (6.7%) | [727] |
Sphaeranthus cyathuloides O. Hoffm. | Carnivore, Nairobi, Kenya | Leaves | trans-Dihydrocarvone (67.4%), cis-dihydrocarvone (26.2%) | [728] |
Sphaeranthus indicus L. | Calicut University, Kerala, India | Aerial parts | Thymohydroquinone dimethylether (27.0%), τ-cadinol (12.5%), β-eudesmol (9.1%), α-eudesmol (7.0%) | [729] |
Sphaeranthus indicus L. | Hyderabad, India | Aerial parts | Thymohydroquinone dimethylether (18.2%), selin-11-en-4α-ol (12.7%), α-agarofuran (11.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.4%) | [730] |
Sphaeranthus indicus L. | Calicut University, Kerala, India | Flowers | β-Eudesmol (21.4%), thymohydroquinone dimethylether (16.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.8%), τ-cadinol (7.2%), caryophyllene oxide (6.9%) | [729] |
Sphaeranthus indicus L. | Calicut University, Kerala, India | Roots | Thymohydroquinone dimethylether (28.3%), τ-cadinol (25.3%), (Z)-arteannuic alcohol (10.1%), | [729] |
Sphaeranthus suaveolens DC. | Tanta, Egypt | Leaves | iso-Pinocamphone (33.5%), thymohydroquinone dimethylether (16.1%), α-pinene (10.6%), 1,8-cineole (6.6%), p-cymene (6.3%) | [731] |
Table 54. Chemical compositions of Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski (syn. Thelechitonia trilobata (L.) H. Rob. & Cuatrec.) essential oils.
Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Federal University of Viçosa, Minas Gerais state, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (11.9-35.8%), α-phellandrene (1.4-28.5%), α-pinene (7.3-23.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (4.6-19.0%), bicyclogermacrene (6.0-17.0%), limonene (1.8-15.1%), α-humulene (4.0-11.6%) | [733] |
University of Zululand, Kwa-Zulu Natal Province, South Africa | Leaves | α-Pinene (21.6%), α-phellandrene (21.0%), limonene (12.8%), germacrene D (7.5%) | [734] |
Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (78.6–83.3%) | [735] |
3.1.61. Symphyotrichum Nees
There are around 100 species of Symphyotrichum [33], but the essential oils of only Symphyotrichum novae-angliae (L.) G.L. Nesom (syn. Aster novae-angliae L.) and Symphyotrichum squamatum (Spreng.) G.L. Nesom (syn. Aster squamatus Hieron.) have been reported. The leaf essential oil of S. novae-angliae from north Alabama, USA, was largely composed of (2E)-hexenal (31.0%), germacrene D (25.5%), α-pinene (16.4%), δ-cadinene (14.3%), and γ-muurolene (5.4%) [663]. The essential oils of S. squamatum aerial parts were obtained from an inland population (Mansoura, Egypt) and a Mediterranean coastal population (Gamsa City, Al-Dakahlia Governorate, Egypt) [736]. The major components of the coastal sample were humulene epoxide I (18.5%), spathulenol (15.5%), caryophyllene oxide (14.4%), germacrene D (5.9%), and α-humulene (5.5%). On the other hand, the inland sample, showed α-pinene (24.2%), germacrene D (8.6%), α-humulene (7.4%), α-muurolene (6.8%), humulene epoxide I (6.3%), and caryophyllene oxide (6.0%) as the major components.
3.1.62. Tagetes L.
Tagetes (marigolds), is a genus of approximately 50 species native to southern North America, Central America, and South America [33]. The phytochemistry and biological activities of this genus have been extensively studied, and there are several reviews on Tagetes [737–740], including Tagetes erecta L. (Mexican marigold) [741–746], Tagetes minuta L. (southern marigold) [747, 748], and Tagetes patula L. (French marigold) [749]. The representative essential oil compositions of Tagetes species are summarized in Table 55.
3.1.63. Tanacetum L.
The chemical compositions and biological activities of the members of the genus Tanacetum have been previously reviewed [775–779]. Of the 192 species of Tanacetum [33], the most important in terms of ethnopharmacological uses and biological activities are Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. (feverfew), Tanacetum vulgare L. (tansy), and Tanacetum balsamita L. (costmary) [778]. The phytochemical and pharmacological
properties of T. parthenium [780, 781], T. vulgare [32, 782], and T. balsamita [783] have been reviewed. The essential oil compositions of several Tanacetum species are presented in Table 56.
Table 55. Chemical compositions of Tagetes species essential oils.
Tagetes species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Tagetes argentina Cabrera | Sierras Grandes, Córdoba, Argentina | Aerial parts | (E)-Tagetenone (28.8%), (Z)-tagetenone (17.9%), (E)-tagetone (11.8%), (Z)-tagetone (9.4%), dihydrotagetone (6.4%) | [750] |
Tagetes argentina Cabrera | Pampa de Achala, El Condor, Córdoba Province, Argentina | Flowers | (Z)-Tagetenone (44.0%), (E)-tagetenone (38.3%) | [751] |
Tagetes coronopifolia Willd. | Santa María Tecuanulco, Texcoco, Mexico | Aerial parts | Verbenone (30.7%), dihydrotagetonea (14.5%), cis-verbenolb (13.3%), (Z)-β-ocimene (9.5%), (E)-tagetone (9.4%) | [752] |
Tagetes elliptica Sm. | Chupaca Province, Junín Region, Peru | Leaves | (Z)-Tagetenone (37.3%), (E)-tagetenone (18.8%), dihydrotagetone (14.4%), (E)-tagetone (5.2%) | [753] |
Tagetes elliptica Sm. | Chupaca Province, Junín Region, Peru | Leaves | (Z)-Tagetenone (34.2%), (E)-tagetenone (15.0%), (Z)-myroxide (14.5%), dihydrotagetone (13.9%), (E)-tagetone (5.8%) | [754] |
Tagetes erecta L. | Po Valley, Italy | Flowers | Piperitone (28.9%), terpinolene (5.8%) | [737] |
Tagetes erecta L. | Miyaneh county, East Azerbaijan Province, Iran | Fruit | 2-Isopropyl-5-methyl-3-cyclohexen-1-one (20.0%), palmitic acid (19.1%), limonene (12.8%), terpinolene (11.6%) | [755] |
Tagetes erecta L. | Mérida Municipio Libertador, Mérida State, Venezuela | Leaves | Piperitone (35.9%), terpinolene (22.2%), limonene (8.8%), (E)-β-ocimene (7.0%) | [756] |
Tagetes erecta L. | Po Valley, Italy | Leaves | Terpinolene (28.8%), piperitone (24.2%), limonene (15.6%) | [737] |
Tagetes filifolia Lag. | Tucumán, Argentina | Aerial parts | (E)-Anethole (76.9%), estragole (19.3%) | [10] |
Tagetes filifolia Lag. | Sierra de Los Gigantes, Córdoba province, Argentina | Aerial parts | (E)-Anethole (74.8%), estragole (23.7%) | [757] |
Tagetes filifolia Lag. | Occopa, Santiago District, Cuzco, Peru | Aerial parts | (E)-Anethole (85.0%), estragole (12.9%) | [758] |
Tagetes filifolia Lag. | Alta Gracia, Córdoba Province, Argentina | Flowers | (E)-Anethole (67.0%), estragole (30.3%) | [751] |
Tagetes filifolia Lag. | Mérida Municipio Libertador, Mérida State, Venezuela | Leaves | (E)-Anethole (87.5%), estragole (10.7%) | [756] |
Tagetes filifolia Lag. | Po Valley, Italy | Leaves | Estragole (90.4%), (E)-anethole (5.5%) | [737] |
Tagetes filifolia Lag. | Cerro Villonaco, Loja Province, Ecuador | Leaves | (E)-Anethole (55.6%), 1-tridecene (8.7%), estragole (5.8%) | [759] |
Tagetes lacera Brandegee | La Paz y Los Cabos, Baja California Sur, México | Aerial parts | (E)-Tagetone (26.2%), verbenone (22.1%), α-thujene (20.5%), chrysanthenone (24.8%) | [760] |
Tagetes laxa Cabrera | Salta Province, La Caldera, Yacones, Argentina | Aerial parts | (E)-Tagetenone (31.4%), (Z)-tagetenone (26.2%), (Z)-β-ocimene (24.1%) | [761] |
Tagetes laxa Cabrera | Yacones and Quebrada del Toro, Salta Province, Argentina | Flowers | (E)-Tagetenone (33.2%), (Z)-tagetenone (27.1%), (Z)-β-ocimene (15.8%), (E)-β-ocimene (8.7%), dihydrotagetone (6.2%), (Z)-tagetone (5.6%) | [751] |
Tagetes lemmonii A. Gray | Sierra de Mazatlán, Sonora, Mexico | Aerial parts | Dihydrotagetonea (35.2%), (E)-tagetone (21.8%), (Z)-β-ocimene (11.5%), (Z)-tagetone (7.5%) | [752] |
Tagetes lemmonii A. Gray | Dover, Deleware, USA | Aerial parts | Dihydrotagetone (42.5%), (E)-tagetone (16.1%), (E)-tagetenone (14.2%) | [762] |
Tagetes lucida Cav. | San Pablo Ixayoc, Texcoco, Mexico | Aerial parts | Estragole (36.0%), (E)-anethole (17.2%), (E)-β-ocimene (9.0%) | [752] |
Tagetes lucida Cav. | Havana, Cuba | Aerial parts | Estragole (97%) | [763] |
Tagetes lucida Cav. | Po Valley, Italy | Flowers | Estragole (93.8%) | [737] |
Tagetes lucida Cav. | Po Valley, Italy | Leaves | Estragole (78.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (9.4%) | [737] |
Tagetes mandonii Sch. Bip. ex Klatt | Sacsayhuman National Park, Cusco District, Peru | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Ocimene (15.2%), (Z)-β-ocimene (11.8%), (Z)-anethole (9.2%), (E)-tagetenone (8.6%), (E)-tagetone (8.5%), spathulenol (6.9%) | [764] |
Tagetes mendocina Phil. | Bauchaceta district, San Juan Province, Argentina | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Ocimene (28.6%), (Z)-tagetone (28.0%), (E)-tagetone (11.7%), (Z)-tagetenone (7.3%), α-pinene (5.5%) | [765] |
Tagetes minuta L. | Tucumán, Argentina | Aerial parts | (Z)-Tagetone (62.4%), (E)-β-ocimene (16.2%), dihydrotagetone (10.3%) | [10] |
Tagetes minuta L. | Po Valley, Italy | Flowers | (E)-Tagetone (58.0%), (Z)-β-ocimene (25.5%) | [737] |
Tagetes minuta L. | Highlands near São Joaquim, Santa Catarina, Brazil | Flowers | (Z)-Tagetone (62.7%), (Z)-β-ocimene (21.3%), dihydrotagetone (5.6%) | [766] |
Tagetes minuta L. | Dhamar Province, Yemen | Leaves | (E)-Tagetenone (34.8%), (Z)-tagetenone (15.9%), (Z)-β-ocimene (8.3%) | [767] |
Tagetes minuta L. | Po Valley, Italy | Leaves | Dihydrotagetone (61.1%), (E)-tagetone (9.7%), limonene (8.8%), camphor (5.7%), (Z)-β-ocimene (5.1%) | [737] |
Tagetes multiflora Kunth | Andahuaylas Province, Peru | Leaves | (Z)-Tagetone (29.1%), (E)-β-ocimene (20.3%), dihydrotagetone (7.9%), terpinolene (7.4%) | [768] |
Tagetes nelsonii Greenm. | San Cristóbal de las Casas, Mexico | Leaves | (Z)-Tagetenone (25.0%), (E)-tagetone (15.3%), dihydrotagetone (12.7%), (Z)-tagetone (10.3%), cis-muurola-4(14),5-diene (5.8%) | [769] |
Tagetes parryi A.Gray | Villa de Zaragoza, San Luis Potosí State, Mexico | Aerial parts | Verbenone (33.4%), dihydrotagetone (26.9%), (Z)-tagetone (20.8%) | [770] |
Tagetes patula L. | Siedlce district, Poland | Aerial parts | Terpinolene (15.8%), limonene (12.5%), piperitone (9.8%), piperitenone (8.4%), (Z)-β-ocimene (7.9%) | [4] |
Tagetes patula L. | La Culata, Mérida State, Venezuela | Flowers | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (23.7%), terpinolene (15.6%), (Z)-β-ocimene (15.5%), piperitenone (8.4%), (Z)-tagetenone (8.7%), limonene (6.8%), (E)-tagetenone (5.1%) | [756] |
Tagetes patula L. | Po Valley, Italy | Flowers | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (18.2%), (E)-β-ocimene (15.0%), terpinolene (14.6%), (Z)-β-ocimene (11.8%), limonene (6.1%) | [737] |
Tagetes patula L. | La Culata, Mérida State, Venezuela | Leaves | Terpinolene (20.9%), piperitenone (14.0%), (E)-tagetenone (9.5%), limonene (8.4%), (Z)-β-ocimene (8.1%), piperitone (7.8%), (Z)-tagetenone (7.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.8%) | [756] |
Tagetes patula L. | Po Valley, Italy | Leaves | Terpinolene (22.6%), (E)-β-ocimene (16.5%), limonene (13.4%), piperitone (7.2%), (Z)-β-ocimene (6.5%) | [737] |
Tagetes pusilla Kunth | Guayaquil, Ecuador | Aerial parts | (E)-Anethole (68.0%), estragole (24.5%) | [771] |
Tagetes pusilla Kunth | El Valle, Mérida, Venezuela | Leaves | (E)-Anethole (70.0%), estragole (30.0%) | [772] |
Tagetes riojana M. Ferraro | Catamarca Province, Argentina | Leaves | (E)-Tagetone (40.3%), (Z)-tagetenone (23.2%), dihydrotagetone (15.4%), (E)-β-ocimene (7.5%) | [773] |
Tagetes rupestris Cabrera | Tucumán, Argentina | Aerial parts | (E)-Tagetenone (39.3%), (E)-tagetone (24.4%), (Z)-β-ocimene (6.1%), (Z)-tagetenone (5.9%) | [10] |
Tagetes subulata Cerv. | Mérida Municipio Libertador, Mérida State, Venezuela | Leaves | Terpinolene (26.0%), piperitenone (13.1%), limonene (10.8%), (Z)-β-ocimene (9.5%), (E)-tagetenone (9.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.0%), (Z)-tagetenone (5.5%), piperitone (5.4%) | [756] |
Tagetes tenuifolia Cav. | Po Valley, Italy | Flowers | (E)-Tagetenone (24.7%), dihydrotagetone (20.2%), (Z)-β-ocimene (17.0%), (E)-tagetone (11.5%) | [737] |
Tagetes tenuifolia Cav. | Po Valley, Italy | Leaves | (E)-Tagetenone (41.6%), dihydrotagetone (12.6%), (E)-tagetone (9.8%), (Z)-β-ocimene (5.9%) | [737] |
Tagetes terniflora Kunth | Tucumán, Argentina | Aerial parts | (Z)-Tagetone (31.0%), (Z)-β-ocimene (15.4%), (E)-tagetenone (15.4%), (Z)-tagetenone (14.5%), (E)-tagetone (10.3%), dihydrotagetone (6.5%) | [10] |
Tagetes terniflora Kunth | Los Altos de Chiapas, Mexico | Aerial parts | (E)-Tagetone (28.7%), dihydrotagetonea (20.5%), (Z)-β-ocimene (19.3%), cis-verbenolb (13.8%) | [752] |
Tagetes terniflora Kunth | Salta Province, La Caldera, Yacones, Argentina | Aerial parts | (Z)-Tagetone (67.8%), (Z)-β-ocimene (18.0%), (E)-tagetenone (7.6%) | [761] |
Tagetes terniflora Kunth | Tafi, Tucumán Province, Argentina | Flowers | Dihydrotagetone (68.2%), (Z)-β-ocimene (15.0%), (E)-tagetenone (5.5%) | [751] |
Tagetes verticillata Lag. & Rod. | Mérida Municipio Libertador, Mérida State, Venezuela | Leaves | (E)-Tagetenone (64.3%), (Z)-tagetone (13.7%), dihydrotagetone (7.4%), (Z)-tagetenone (6.7%) | [756] |
Tagetes zypaquirensis Bonpl. | Pasto, Colombia | Aerial parts | Dihydrotagetone (42.2%), (E)-tagetone (22.9%), (E)-tagetenone (20.8%), (Z)-tagetenone (5.6%) | [774] |
a Labeled as 4-ethyl-4-methyl-1-hexene, but that compound is not found in the Dictionary of Natural Products [98], the retention time is more consistent with dihydrotagetone. b Labeled as cis-verbenone, but this must be a misspelling. | ||||
Table 56. Chemical compositions of Tanacetum essential oils.
Tanacetum species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Tanacetum annuum L. | Beni Aerousse region, Tanger-Tétouan-Al Hoceima province, Morocco | Aerial parts | Chamazulene (17.7%), sabinene (14.4%), camphor (14.2%), 3,6-dihydrochamazulene (7.0%), p-cymene (8.9%), β-pinene (5.3%), α-phellandrene (5.1%) | [784] |
Tanacetum annuum L. | Ben Karrich, Tetouan province, Morocco | Aerial parts | Camphor (16.7%), α-pinene (12.4%), bornyl acetate (12.0%), borneol (6.3%) | [785] |
Tanacetum balsamita L. | Türkiye | Aerial parts | Carvone (51.0%), β-thujone (20.8%) | [786] |
Tanacetum balsamita L. | Ovčar-Kablar Gorge, Serbia | Flowers | Carvone (54.2%), trans-dihydrocarvone (7.7%), β-thujone (6.4%) | [787] |
Tanacetum balsamita L. | Ovčar-Kablar Gorge, Serbia | Leaves | Carvone (52.1%), α-thujone (11.4%), 1,8-cineole (5.9%) | [787] |
Tanacetum corymbosum (L.) Sch. Bip. | Chisinau, Moldova | Aerial parts | Germacrene D (47.5%), 1-octadecanol (9.7%), (Z)-β-farnesene (8.6%), γ-elemene (5.2%) | [788] |
Tanacetum dolichophyllum (Kitam.) Kitam. | Khaliya, Munsyari, Uttarakhand, India | Flowers | γ-Eudesmol (24.5%), (E)-β-farnesene (7.2%), linalool (5.6%) | [789] |
Tanacetum dolichophyllum (Kitam.) Kitam. | Khaliya, Munsyari, Uttarakhand, India | Leaves | γ-Eudesmol (20.3%), (E)-β-farnesene (13.4%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (10.9%) | [789] |
Tanacetum fisherae Aitch. & Hemsl. | Kerman, Iran | Flowers | cis-p-Menth-2-en-1-ol (11.2%), trans-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (10.7%), trans-piperitol (7.8%), 1,8-cineole (6.1%) | [790] |
Tanacetum fisherae Aitch. & Hemsl. | Kerman, Iran | Leaves | 1,8-Cineole (16.7%), cis-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (14.6%), trans-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (10.4%), trans-piperitol (12.8%), α-terpineol (5.4%) | [790] |
Tanacetum fruticosum C. Sm. | Karaj, Iran | Aerial parts | Camphor (16.8%), bornyl acetate (14.3%), borneol (11.8%), camphene (11.1%) | [791] |
Tanacetum lingulatum (Boiss.) Bornm. | Urmia Province, Iran | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (18.8%), camphor (15.0%), linalyl propionate (8.5%), α-terpineol (8.0%), sabinene (5.8%), terpinen-4-ol (5.8%) | [792] |
Tanacetum macrophyllum Sch. Bip. | Tsigov Chark, Batak, Bulgaria | Flowers | 1,8-Cineole (23.7%), camphor (22.8%), borneol (5.9%) | [793] |
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. | Kashan, Iran | Aerial parts | Camphor (43.8%), camphene (9.4%), bornyl acetate (6.8%) | [794] |
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. | Brezovica, Serbia | Aerial parts | Camphor (44.8%), trans-chrysanthenyl acetate (29.0%), camphene (8.1%) | [795] |
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. | Southern Bulgaria | Aerial parts | Camphor (45.5%), trans-chrysanthenyl acetate (21.7%), camphene (9.5%), (Z)-iso-geraniol (5.4%) | [796] |
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. | Chormaghzak village, Yovon region, Tajikistan | Aerial parts | Camphor (69.7%), camphene (12.2%), bornyl acetate (8.7%) | [797] |
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. | Tsigov Chark, Rhodope Mountains, Bulgaria | Flowers | Camphor (50.9%), camphene (16.1%), bornyl acetate (6.1%) | [796] |
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. | Gabrovo, Balkan Mountains, Bulgaria | Flowers | Camphor (45.5%), trans-chrysanthenyl acetate (13.9%), camphene (13.0%), trans-verbenyl acetate (8.9%) | [796] |
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. | Wola Zadybska, Poland | Leaves | Camphor (40.1%), trans-chrysanthenyl acetate (22.2%), camphene (7.1%) | [798] |
Tanacetum polycephalum Sch. Bip. | Urmia Province, Iran | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (15.7%), camphor (10.9%), α-pinene (5.4%), sabinene (5.1%) | [792] |
Tanacetum sinaicum (Fresen.) Delile ex K. Bremer & Humphries | Wadi Jibaal, St. Katherine Protectorate, South Sinai, Egypt | Aerial parts | Thymol (17.0%), cis-verbenol (12.2%), 3-thujan-2-one (6.3%), 1,8-cineole (5.9%), eudesm(4(14)en-4-ol (5.5%) | [15] |
Tanacetum sinaicum (Fresen.) Delile ex K. Bremer & Humphries | South Sinai, Egypt | Aerial parts | trans-Chrysanthenyl acetate (33.7%), α-thujone (28.9%), verbenola (9.1%), 1,8-cineole (5.4%) | [799] |
Tanacetum vulgare L. | Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada | Aerial parts | Camphor (30.5%), borneol (14.8%), 1,8-cineole (10.8%), camphene (7.3%), bornyl acetate (5.5%) | [800] |
Tanacetum vulgare L. | Siedlce district, Poland | Aerial parts | α-Thujone (26.9%), 1,8-cineole (16.8%), bornyl acetate (8.9%), camphor (8.4%), β-thujone (7.6%), borneol (7.2%) | [4] |
Tanacetum vulgare L. | Košice, Slovakia | Aerial parts | Borneol (13.6%), umbellulone (11.7%), artemisia ketone (9.3%), cis-chrysanthenol (6.9%), camphor (5.9%), terpinen-4-ol (5.5%), α-pinene (5.0%) | [801] |
Tanacetum vulgare L. | Aleksinac, Serbia | Aerial parts | β-Thujone (49.8%), trans-chrysanthenyl acetate (22.3%), camphor (8.2%) | [795] |
Tanacetum vulgare L. | Rhodope Mountains, Tsigov Chark, Batak, Bulgaria | Flowers | Camphor (25.2%), trans-chrysanthenyl acetate (18.4%), cis-verbenol (10.9%), 1,8-cineole (6.0%), α-campholenal (6.0%) | [802] |
Tanacetum vulgare L. | Wohyń Commune, Radzyń Poviat, Lubelskie Voivodeship, Poland | Flowers | trans-Chrysanthenyl acetate (0.1-76.1%), camphor (1.3-31.2%), trans-dihydrocarvone (0.1-20.6%), 1,8-cineole (2.7-7.9%) | [803] |
a Correct isomer was not indicated. | ||||
3.1.64. Tarchonanthus L.
Tarchonanthus is a relatively small genus comprising six species scattered in southern Africa, eastern Africa, and the Arabian Peninsula [33]. Two species of Tarchonanthus, Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. and Tarchonanthus trilobus DC., have been examined in terms of their essential oil composition and listed in Table 57.
3.1.65. Tithonia Desf. ex Juss
World Flora Online currently recognizes 13 species of Tithonia [33]. The phytochemical compositions and biological activities of Tithonia have been reviewed [809]. The most important member of the genus in terms of phytochemical investigation is Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray (Mexican sunflower), and this species has been reviewed [810–812]. This species is native to Mexico and Central America, but it has become naturalized in many other tropical countries, where it is an invasive pest. The essential
oils of T. diversifolia have been extensively studied in its current geographical locations (Table 58), showing wide variations in composition.
3.1.66. Verbesina L.
The genus Verbesina is very large, with 340 species [33]. Nevertheless, the genus is relatively understudied in terms of essential oil chemistry [828, 829] (Table 59).
3.1.67. Vernonia Schreb,
Vernonia is another large genus with 724 species [33]. Of these, Vernonia amygdalina Delile, Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. (syn. Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H. Rob.), and Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. (syn. Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench) have received the most attention [17,836]. The biological properties, medicinal potential, and phytochemical constituents of V. amygalina [837–843], V. cinerea [844], and V. anthelmintica [845] have been reviewed. The nomenclature of the genus seems to be in flux and there have been several changes (Table 60). Sesquiterpenoids are often the dominant components of the essential oils of Vernonia species (Table 60).
3.1.68. Xanthium L.
Currently , the World Flora Online recognizes nine species of Xanthium [33]. The phytochemistry and pharmacology of Xanthium have been reviewed [867–870] and their major essential oil components are summarized in Table 61.
Table 57. Chemical compositions of Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. and Tarchonanthus trilobus DC. essential oils.
Tarchonanthus species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. | Kenya | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (16.9%), 1,8-cineole (13.1%), exo-fenchol (10.8%) | [804] |
Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. | Alselw district, Taiz province, Yemen | Leaves | endo-Fenchol (21.2%), trans-pinene hydrate (8.8%), caryophyllene oxide (7.5%), α-terpineol (6.4%), τ-cadinol (6.4%), α-cadinol (5.2%) | [805] |
Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. | Njoro, Nakuru, Rift Valley, Kenya | Leaves | endo-Fenchol (15.9%), 1,8-cineole (14.3%), α-terpineol (13.2%), α-pinene (6.9%), trans-pinene hydrate (6.5%), β-eudesmol (5.8%) | [806] |
Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. | Sangoyana, Kwa-Zulu Natal province, South Africa | Leaves | α-Cadinol (9.4%), 1,8-cineole (9.2%), δ-cadinene (6.9%), butanal (6.1%) | [807] |
Tarchonanthus trilobus DC. var. galpinii (Hutch. & E. Phillips) Paiva | Ubombo, Kwa-Zulu Natal province, South Africa | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (30.4%), δ-cadinene (8.0%), γ-muurolene (5.8%), γ-neo-clovene (5.8%), longifolene (5.6%) | [808] |
Table 58. Chemical compositions of Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray and Tithonia rotundifolia S.F. Blake essential oils.
Tithonia species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Bungoma County, Western Kenya | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (63.6%), β-pinene (15.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.6%) | [813] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Uyo, Nigeria | Flowers | Germacrene D (32.5%), α-pinene (7.5%) (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.6%), p-cymene (5.4%) | [814] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | uMhlathuze district, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa | Flowers | α-Pinene (72.8%), β-pinene (9.5%) | [815] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Yaounde region, Cameroon | Flowers | α-Pinene (61.0%), (Z)-β-ocimene (15.5%), limonene (6.4%) | [816] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Olanbiwonu Village, Iwo, Osun State, Nigeria | Flowers | Germacrene D (20.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (20.1%), bicyclogermacrene (8.0%), α-pinene (6.8%), 1,8-cineole (5.7%) | [817] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Gagnoa, Côte d’Ivoire | Flowers | α-Pinene (42.0%), limonene (40.1%), α-cubebene (11.3%) | [818] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Dschang, Cameroon | Flowers | α-Pinene (13.7%), limonene (7.6%), cis-chrysanthenol 6.2%) | [819] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Pires do Rio, Goiás, Brazil | Flowers | α-Pinene (44.3%), cis-chrysanthenol (10.7%), α-copaene (8.2%) | [820] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil | Flowers | β-Pinene (37.r%), α-pinene (33.8%), α-copaene (6.0%) | [820] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil | Flowers | α-Pinene (68.1%), β-pinene (21.9%) | [821] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Nainital, Uttarakhand, India | Leaves | α-Pinene (33.6%), β-pinene (8.6%), germacrene D (8.1%), δ-cadinene (5.1%) | [822] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Fazenda São Jorge, Itaguaçu, Espírito Santo, Brazil | Leaves | β-Pinene (32.7%), α-pinene (24.7%), limonene (22.7%), (E)-β-ocimene (5.6%), sabinene (5.0%) | [823] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Huong Son district, Ha Tinh Province, Vietnam | Leaves | α-Pinene (30.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.1%) | [824] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Yaoundé, Cameroon | Leaves | α-Terpineol (20.3%), 1,8-cineole (14.6%), camphor (20.3%), α-pinene (13.5%), ledol (5.7%), pinocarveol (5.1%) | [825] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Uyo, Nigeria | Leaves | Germacrene D (46.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (12.2%), estragole (9.8%), α-humulene (6.5%) | [814] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Fazendinha, Amapá, Brazil | Leaves | Piperitone (11.7%), spathulenol (10.8%), α-pinene (9.9%), limonene (5.4%) | [16] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Ile-Ife, Nigeria | Leaves | (E)-β-Ocimene (43.7%), α-pinene (28.6%), limonene (12.0%) | [39] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Yaoundé region, Cameroon | Leaves | (Z)-β-Ocimene (40.2%), α-pinene (25.0%), limonene (13.9%), (E)-β-ocimene (5.8%) | [826] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | uMhlathuze district, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa | Leaves | α-Pinene (60.9%), β-pinene (10.7%) | [815] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Olanbiwonu Village, Iwo, Osun State, Nigeria | Leaves | α-Pinene (32.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (20.8%), germacrene D (12.6%), β-pinene (10.9%), 1,8-cineole (9.1%) | [817] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Gagnoa, Côte d’Ivoire | Leaves | Limonene (44.1%), (E)-β-ocimene (27.0%), α-pinene (16.8%) | [818] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Pires do Rio, Goiás, Brazil | Leaves | α-Pinene (41.9%), limonene (8.6%), camphene (7.6%) | [820] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil | Leaves | β-Pinene (49.4%), α-pinene (26.2%) | [820] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil | Leaves | α-Pinene (45.0%), β-pinene (34.0%) | [821] |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray | Fokoue Village, Dschang, Menoua Division, Cameroon | Leaves | Limonene (20.1%), α-copaene (10.3%), p-cymene (10.0%), 1-pentadecanol (8.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.4%), α-pinene (7.7%) | [827] |
Tithonia rotundifolia S.F. Blake | Awo village, Osun State, Nigeria | Leaves | Germacrene D (33.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (25.8%), bicyclogermacrene (8.7%), neo-phytadiene (6.5%) | [39] |
Table 59. Chemical compositions of Verbesina essential oils.
Verbesina species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Verbesina diversifolia DC. | Fortaleza and Ubajara, Ceara, Brazil | Leaves | γ-Muurolene (30.5%), γ-elemene (24.6%), α-pinene (7.9%), trans-β-elemene (5.8%), β-pinene (5.3%) | [410] |
Verbesina diversifolia DC. | Pico Alto, Guaramiranga Mountain, State of Ceará, Brazil | Leaves | Bicyclogermacrene (23.2%), germacrene D-4-ol (14.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.4%), β-phellandrene (5.4%) | [830] |
Verbesina macrophylla (Cass.) S.F. Blake | Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (37.3%), germacrene D-4-ol (17.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (5.9%), δ-cadinene (5.7%), bicyclogermacrene (5.3%) | [831] |
Verbesina macrophylla (Cass.) S.F. Blake | Camocim de São Félix, Pernambuco, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (25.5%), germacrene D-4-ol (18.8%), bicyclogermacrene (11.3%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (9.9%) | [832] |
Verbesina negrensis Steyerm. | Pueblo Hondo, Aldea Llanetes, Táchira State, Venezuela | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (43.1%), α-humulene (13.8%), δ-cadinene (8.1%) | [833] |
Verbesina turbacensis Kunth | Pueblo Llano, Municipio Miranda, Mérida State, Venezuela | Leaves | Germacrene D (56.2%), bicyclogermacrene (8.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.1%), α-pinene (6.2%), α-eudesmol (6.1%) | [834] |
Verbesina turbacensis Kunth | Monteverde, Costa Rica | Leaves | Germacrene D (29.1-36.9%), δ-elemene (21.7-22.1%), β-pinene (12.8-15.6%), α-pinene (11.1-13.9%), limonene (8.4-9.6%) | [835] |
Table 60. Chemical compositions of Vernonia essential oils.
Vernonia species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Vernonia albicans DC. | Shiroda, Maharashtra, India | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (34.3%), γ-amorphene (19.5%), 9-epi-(E)-β-caryophyllene (6.9%), α-pinene (6.9%) | [846] |
Vernonia amygdalina Delile | Umdike, Nigeria | Leaves | 1,8-Cineole (25.1%), β-pinene (14.5%), myrtenal (6.5%), trans-pinocarveol (6.2%) | [847] |
Vernonia amygdalina Delile | Tho Xuan district, Thanh Hoa province, Vietnam | Leaves | Caryophyllene oxide (29.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (20.0%), α-humulene (8.5%), humulene epoxide II (5.7%) | [848] |
Vernonia amygdalina Delile | Iwo, Nigeria | Leaves | α-Muurolol (45.7%) | [849] |
Vernonia amygdalina Delile | Ibadan, Nigeria | Leaves | Thymol (27.0%), (E)-phytol (15.7%), p-cymenea (12.7%), β-selinene (8.1%) | [850] |
Vernonia brasiliana (L.) Druce | Sobral, Brazil | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (36.7%), germacrene D (35.5%), α-humulene (11.7%), α-copaene (5.2%) | [851] |
Vernonia brasiliana (L.) Druce | Monte Alegre de Minas, Minas Gerais state, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (10.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.7%), bicyclogermacrene (5.8%), spathulenol (5.2%) | [24] |
Vernonia brasiliana (L.) Druce | Santa Luzia, Maranhão State, Brazil | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (21.5%), germacrene D (14.6%), caryophyllene oxide (10.3%), α-humulene (8.9%), α-copaene (5.2%) | [852] |
Vernonia chalybaea Mart. ex DC. | Meruoca Mountain, Ceará, Brazil | Aerial parts | β-Pinene (30.6%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (12.1%), α-pinene (9.7%), bicyclogermacrene (8.6%) | [853] |
Vernonia chalybaea Mart. ex DC. | Alcântaras, Ceará, Brazil | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (39.1%), bicyclogermacrene (19.7%), caryophyllene oxide (8.7%), trans-β-elemene (8.3%), spathulenol (6.8%) | [854] |
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. | Belgaum, Karnataka, India | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (23.2%), δ-cadinene (10.3%), γ-amorphene (7.5%), cis-β-guaiene (6.8%), premnaspirodiene (6.3%) | [855] |
Vernonia colorata Drake | Kolakani, Mali | Aerial parts | Palmitic acid (14.8%), hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (12.2%), tetradecane-2-one (8.3%) | [856] |
Vernonia condensata Baker | Caatinga biome, Pernambuco, Brazil | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (18.4%), γ-muurolene (16.4%), α-humulene (6.0%) | [857] |
Vernonia crotonoides Sch. Bip. | Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil | Aerial parts | α-Cadinol (14.1%), spathulenol (9.8%), eugenol (6.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.3%), caryophyllene oxide (5.9%), τ-cadinol (5.3%) | [858] |
Vernonia migeodii S. Moore | Isanlu-Isin, Kwara State, Nigeria | Leaves | Germacrene D (26.8%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (16.4%), caryophyllene oxide (6.0%), α-humulene (5.6%), 1-octen-3-one (5.1%) | [859] |
Vernonia nigritiana Oliv. & Hiern | Kolakani, Mali | Aerial parts | τ-Cadinol (9.7%), phytol (8.7%), (E,E)-α-farmesol (7.8%), hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (7.5%) | [856] |
Vernonia patula Merr. | Pu Hoat Nature Reserve, Nghe An Province, Vietnam | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (28.5%), caryophyllene oxide (16.6%), α-copaene (9.0%), α-humulene (7.1%) | [860] |
Vernonia perrottetii Sch. Bip. ex Walp. | Isanlu-Isin, Kwara State, Nigeria | Leaves | Germacrene D (34.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (28.1%) | [861] |
Vernonia polyanthes Less. | Lavras, Brazil | Leaves | Germacrene D (42.2%), bicyclogermacrene (17.2%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (13.6%), α-humulene (7.8%), spathulenol (5.2%) | [862] |
Vernonia polyanthes Less. | Brazil | Leaves | Myrcene (34.3%), zerumbone (15.8%), bicyclogermacrene (8.9%) | [863] |
Vernonia remotiflora Rich. | Crato, Ceará, Brazil | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (42.2%), bicyclogermacrene (20.0%), α-humulene (7.9%) | [851] |
Vernonia scorpioides (Lam.) Cass. | Guaramiranga mountain, Ceará, Brazil | Aerial parts | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (30.6%), germacrene D (27.3%), bicyclogermacrene (8.5%), δ-cadinene (5.2%) | [864] |
Vernonia solanifolia Benth. | Pu Hot Nature Reserve, Nghe An Province, Vietnam | Leaves | Sabinene (49.2%), δ-cadinene (10.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.8%) | [865] |
Vernonia volkameriifolia DC. | Pu Luong Nature Reserve, Thanh Hoa Province, Vietnam | Leaves | β-Bisabolene (25.2%), β-pinene (19.1%), germacrene D (13.1%), trans-β-elemeneb (11.4%) | [866] |
a Reported as o-cymene, but the retention index is more consistent with p-cymene. b Reported as cis-β-elemene, but the retention index is more consistent with trans-β-elemene. | ||||
Table 61. Chemical compositions of Xanthium essential oils.
Xanthium species | Geographical location | Plant tissue | Major components (> 5%) | Ref. |
Xanthium brasilicum Vell. | Tehran, Iran | Aerial parts | Borneol (28.9%), fenchone (21.1%), isobornyl acetate (9.1%) | [871] |
Xanthium cavanillesii Schouw ex Didr. | Las Piedras, Entre Rios province, Argentina | Aerial parts | Limonene (43.6%), β-pinene (5.4%), bornyl acetate (5.1%) | [872] |
Xanthium italicum Moretti | Corsica, France | Aerial parts | Limonene (30.4%), germacrene D (8.9%), sabinene (6.1%) | [873] |
Xanthium italicum Moretti | Urumqi city, Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region, China | Aerial parts | Limonene (51.6%), germacrene B (7.0%), δ-cadinol (5.9%), β-pinene (5.6%), α-humulene (5.1%) | [874] |
Xanthium sibiricum Patrin ex Widder | Urumqi, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China | Aerial parts | Limonene (56.9%), myrcene (26.2%) | [875] |
Xanthium italicum Moretti | Temska village, near Pirot city, Serbia | Fruit | Germacrene B (28.7%), shyobunol (16.7%), α-humulene (8.4%) | [876] |
Xanthium spinosum L. | Corsica, France | Aerial parts | Eudesma-4(14),7-dien-1β-ol (18.7%), germacrene D (8.1%), β-elemol (5.7%), humulene epoxide II (5.6%), cadalene (5.5%) | [873] |
Xanthium strumarium L. | Hampton Cove, Alabama, USA | Aerial parts | Limonene (48.0%), myrcene (14.3%), germacrene D (13.9%), (2E)-hexenal (5.8%) | [13] |
Xanthium strumarium L. | Sari, Taberestan, Iran | Fruit | Methyl linoleate (40.6%), methyl oleate (13.1%), methyl palmitate (12.4%), neo-intermedeol (9.7%) | [877] |
Xanthium strumarium L. | El-Salhia region, Al-Sharkia Province, Egypt | Leaves | 1,5-Dimethyltetralin (14.3%), α-eudesmol (10.6%), spathulenol (7.5%), borneol (6.6%), ledene alcohol (6.5%), caryophyllene oxide (5.4%), 7,8-dehydro-8α-hydroxyisolongifolene (5.1%) | [878] |
Xanthium strumarium L. | Khoramabad, Province, Lurestan, Iran | Leaves | Limonene (24.7%), borneol (10.6%), β-cubebene (6.3%), bornyl acetate (5.9%) | [879] |
Xanthium strumarium L. | Lahore, Pakistan | Leaves | (E)-β-Caryophyllene (17.5%), α-cadinol (6.7%), spathulenol (6.1%), limonene (5.7%) | [880] |
Xanthium strumarium L. | Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil | Leaves | β-Guaiene (79.6%) | [881] |
Xanthium strumarium L. | Yozgat, Türkiye | Leaves | α-Cadinol (12.4%), caryophyllene oxide (11.9%), borneol (9.2%), iso-aromadendrene epoxide (8.7%), cubebol (8.6%), hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (8.1%), τ-cadinol (6.8%), α-bisabolene epoxide (5.0%) | [882] |
Xanthium strumarium L. | Zabol, Sistan and Baluchestan Province, Iran | Leaves | cis-β-Guaiene (34.2%), limonene (20.3%), borneol (11.6%) | [883] |
4. Conclusions |
The Asteraceae (Compositae) family is one of the largest and most diverse plant families, with many species that produce essential oils that contribute to fragrance, flavor, aroma, and biological activities. Asteraceae essential oils are dominated by mono- and sesquiterpenoids, and the particular group of major components vary by genus and species. The essential oil compositions are strongly influenced by environmental factors, including soil type, climate, altitude, and seasonality, which leads to chemotypes with the same species.
We hope that this review will provide information for researchers, aromatherapists, medicinal chemists, horticulturists, and other essential oil enthusiasts, who are interested in the compositions and biological activities of Asteraceae essential oils. However, the intraspecific variability in Asteraceae essential oils poses challenges for the standardization and reproducibility of their biological activities. Thus, essential oils intended for therapeutic, cosmetic, or food use should undergo safety assessments (e.g., toxicity, dermal irritation, sensitization) and regulatory compliance (e.g., labeling, concentrations).
Disclaimer (artificial intelligence)
Authors hereby state that no generative AI tools such as Large Language Models (ChatGPT, Copilot, etc.) and text-to-image generators were utilized in the preparation or editing of this manuscript.
Authors’ contributions
Conceptualization, W.N.S. and A.E.; data curation, W.N.S.; writing—original draft preparation, W.N.S. and A.E.; writing—review and editing, A.E. and F.S.; project administration, W.N.S.
Acknowledgments
W.N.S. participated in this work as part of the activities of the Aromatic Plant Research Center (APRC, https://aromaticplant.org/).
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency.
Availability of data and materials
All data will be made available on request according to the journal policy.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Abstract
Essential oils extracted from the Asteraceae family, one of the largest families of angiosperms, have shown numerous biological properties and are widely used in the pharmaceutical, perfumery, agricultural, and food industries. The biological properties of these natural agents are directly related to their chemical composition. Therefore, the present review aims to investigate the chemical components of essential oils from the Asteraceae family and introduce their major compounds. The Asteraceae family, essential oils, chemical components, and major compounds were used as keywords in the searches. Terpene and phenylpropanoid compounds were identified as the dominant compounds in most of the essential oils. For instance, the major components of Artemisia annua L. essential oil are artemisia ketone, 1,8-cineole, and camphor. (Z)-β-ocimene was identified in all specimens of Tagetes minuta L. essential oils. Agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was used for the essential oils that had been studied extensively. For example, in the Artemisia absinthium L. essential oil, three different chemotypes, sabinyl acetate, β-thujone-rich cluster, and 6,7-epoxyocimene, were identified. In some cases, diverse chemotypes from different locations have been introduced. For example, the chemotypes of Achillea millefolium L. are not restricted to geographical locations and the largest cluster (the β-pinene cluster) has representatives from India, Iran, Brazil, Sardinia, Lithuania, Cuba, and Portugal. Likewise, essential oils from Iran represent all five different chemotypes. The results of this review can be used to make decisions about the use of Asteraceae essential oils.
Abstract Keywords
Compositae, chemical profile, essential oils, terpenes.
This work is licensed under the
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Editor-in-Chief
This work is licensed under the
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License.(CC BY-NC 4.0).